Gu Mingshu and Hu Xiaohong: The Theoretical Explorations and Leadership Roles of Chen Duxiu and Li Dazhao during the Debates over Confucianism in the Early Republic [1]
Mao Zedong pointed out: "In studying the history of the Communist Party of China, one should also study the materials of the Xinhai Revolution [1] and the May Fourth Movement [2] prior to the Party's founding. Otherwise, one cannot understand the development of history." Similarly, studying the thoughts and practices of the CPC regarding the recognition and handling of religious issues necessitates an in-depth study of the relevant debates on religion during the Xinhai Revolution and the May Fourth period. After the Xinhai Revolution, Kang Youwei, Chen Huanzhang, and other members of the Confucian Society (孔教会) petitioned the National Assembly, advocating for the establishment of Confucianism as the state religion and its inclusion in the Constitution. This drew wide participation from all sectors of society and sparked multi-faceted debates. The focus lay in the two "State Religion Movements" of 1913–1914 and 1916–1917. Beginning with the publication of "Refuting Kang Youwei’s Letter to the President and Premier" on October 1, 1916 (published in New Youth, Vol. 2, No. 2), leading figures of the New Culture Movement such as Chen Duxiu and Li Dazhao participated as a "fresh force against Confucius." They engaged in debates with Kang Youwei and others, conducted discussions within the New Youth circle, critiqued religion and theism, and explored theoretical issues such as the origin and modern transformation of religion, the essence of religion and the specific nature of Confucianism, the functions and ultimate development trends of religion, and the relationship between religion and politics, thereby playing an important leadership role. Therefore, a systematic review of the process by which Chen Duxiu and Li Dazhao led the Confucian religion debate and conducted theoretical exploration is of great ideological significance.
I. Judgments on the Origin and Modern Transformation of Religion under the Background of "New Culture"
In the brief period prior to the clash with the Confucian religion movement (roughly one year, from the founding of Youth Magazine and the publication of "Call to Youth" [3] in September 1915 to the publication of "Refuting Kang Youwei’s Letter to the President and Premier" in October 1916), Chen Duxiu and Li Dazhao published several articles touching upon religious issues. Among them, Chen Duxiu was significantly influenced by modern Western civilization, particularly the currents of scientific thought, while Li Dazhao focused on discourse integrated with socio-political conditions; the specific content covered issues such as the origin and modern transformation of religion.
In his impassioned and far-reaching "Our Final Awakening," Chen Duxiu discussed religion: "The actions of humans must have an aim, as must their lives... All the philosophies and religions of the world arise from the desire to achieve this awakening." Here, Chen Duxiu believed that religion aims to solve the problem of one's outlook on life, consistent with philosophy. However, although religion arises from the problems of life, it fails to truly solve them: "What is the true reality of human life? ... Judging by the established theories of the hundred schools, or mystical religions... without obtaining the primary cause, it is difficult to speak of the endgame." In Chen Duxiu’s view, religion’s inability to solve the problems of life lies in a fundamental contradiction within its mode or mechanism of resolution. He proposed: "Religious aesthetics are products of an age of imagination." Here, "imagination" stands in opposition to "science," referring to two modes of thinking; the core lies in whether one appeals to reason and empirical evidence. Chen Duxiu’s aim was to call upon the youth to overcome dogmatic imagination and cultivate a scientific spirit and method of "seeking confirmation in all things" to adapt to the trend of the times. Chen Duxiu pointed out: "Today, things change by the day and the month; the rise of every matter and the detail of every object must without exception appeal to scientific laws to determine what to follow or defy." Religion, however, relies on "imagination" and "superstition"—characterized by "hypothesis without empirical evidence"—as its condition for existence, which is fundamentally at odds with this. "I believe that modern people all desire 'understanding before belief' (解在信先); to believe without understanding—one cannot know whether that is superstition or not." "Understanding before belief" complies with the scientific spirit, whereas the reverse is superstition. Chen Duxiu dedicated himself to the work of "understanding" to evaluate religion. Its essence was a critique of the internal mechanism by which religion occurs.
In an article by Chen Duxiu discussing the relationship between Heaven and Man, although not a direct discourse on religion, the theme already touched upon the realistic roots of the birth and development of religion. He said: "All phenomena of birth and extinction in the universe that can be known by our consciousness and reached by our ability constitute the Way of Man (人道). The origin of this birth and extinction, which is unknown to us, is Nature—this is the Way of Heaven (天道)." According to Chen’s description, a massive tension exists between what humans "can know" and the "as yet unknown," as well as between the "reachable" and the "as yet unreachable" regarding the natural Way of Heaven. This tension constitutes the space for the emergence and development of religious feeling and religious consciousness. Chen Duxiu called the consciousness of what is knowable and the ability of what is reachable regarding the natural Way of Heaven "resistance power" (抵抗力). In his view, relying on resistance power to "evade harm and resist insult" to contend with the natural Way of Heaven is something "common to all species" and not exclusive to humans: "The superior win and the inferior lose; there is no escaping this logic. Throughout all living and non-living things, as long as there is a breath of survival, there must not be a breath without resistance power." One can see here the influence of Darwinian evolution on Chen Duxiu. Undoubtedly, the environment faced by humans is more complex: "As the affairs of human life become more numerous, the demand for resistance power becomes even greater." In Chen Duxiu’s view, human resistance power evolves forward: "Humans conquer nature through technology and utilize it as an aid to evolution; the instances of human strength overcoming nature (人力胜天) are most obvious." Science and technology, as "aids to evolution," are precisely the most powerful weapons in "humanity overcoming nature" and the most forceful lever for regulating the tension between the Way of Heaven and the Way of Man. In this process, the space for the existence of religion is continuously compressed. Under the background of the vigorous advancement of modern natural science, the truth of the universe and life is gradually exposed; Chen Duxiu called this the "naked era" or the "era of unmasking." In his view, Darwin’s theory of evolution was of great significance to the ideological transformation and social development of Europe: "Since Britain’s Darwin held the theory of biological evolution, stating that humans were not created by God..." then the "sacred and immutable sectarian styles" were "wholly discarded," and "material forces and human achievement advanced greatly." Taken as a whole, Chen Duxiu discussed religion from the relationships between the individual and the world, human intelligence and divine authority, and the Way of Man and the Way of Heaven. In these narratives, religion is regarded as a "product of the age of imagination" and is "wholly discarded" in the process of "humanity conquering nature through technology."
By comparison, Li Dazhao paid more attention to "counter-power" (对抗力) in the sphere of political life—namely, the "cultivation of political counter-power"—within which he also discussed the modern fate of religion. The two sides of the "counter-power" discussed by Li Dazhao were "the governors" and "the governed"; the "balance of the two powers" is the prerequisite for obtaining "good government" or "the blessing of a peaceful reign." According to Li Dazhao’s observation of history, the rise and fall of political counter-power depends on "changes in the thinking of the citizenry," and the "fermentation of thought becomes the power of the moment." Specifically regarding China, which was then undergoing a change in the global order, Li Dazhao said: "When political power loses its track and autocracy flares up, the reality of the Republic is no longer upheld." He added: "The 'King’s Qi' [4] becomes as desolate as the palaces of the Qin and Han, and religion falls into ruin along with the ancestral shrines and burial mounds." Here, "King’s Qi" belongs to the old forces, representing "autocracy," while "religion" can be understood as the ideology and culture consistent with that "King’s Qi"; "becoming desolate" and "falling into ruin" are their developmental trends. As for what constituted the new force, Li Dazhao explicitly proposed: "It is the force of the masses (群众势力), which is like the sun at high noon, possessing majestic authority that none dare insult." Li Dazhao repeatedly emphasized the force of the masses, the will of the masses, and the hand of the masses, illustrating his esteem for democratic politics, which also contained ideological elements of evolution and the materialist conception of history (群众史观) [5]. In Li Dazhao’s vision, religious issues were often intertwined with political and economic issues. In other words, analyzing the development and transformation of religion from the perspective of social economy and the development of human society was his important ideological characteristic.
In short, in the early stage of the New Culture Movement, religion did not attain the status of an independent object of study but was covered under themes like morality, law, and education within the macro-narrative of the importation of European culture and the comparison between Western and Chinese civilizations. The currents of scientific and democratic thought were the most critical ideological weapons therein.
On September 19, 1916, Kang Youwei’s "Letter from Kang Nanhai to the Premier and President," written to then-President Li Yuanhong and Premier Duan Qirui, was published in the Shenbao. Its core proposition was "to take Confucius as the Great Religion and encode it into the Constitution." Chen Duxiu immediately published several articles, such as "Refuting Kang Youwei’s Letter to the President and Premier," to critique it, pushing the Confucian religion debate—which had already gained broad influence in the early Republic—to a deeper level. After entering the context of the Confucian religion debate, Chen Duxiu, Li Dazhao, and others gradually granted religious issues independent research value and explored important questions such as the essence of religion and the specific nature of Confucianism, the ultimate development trend of religion, and the relationship between church and state.
II. The Essence of Religion and the Specific Nature of Confucianism in the Context of the Confucian Religion Debate
Regarding Kang Youwei’s proposition to "take Confucius as the Great Religion and encode it into the Constitution," Chen Duxiu clearly pointed out that "Confucianism possesses absolutely no religious essence or ritual," and believed that religion "focuses on the salvation of the soul and is a transcendental sect (出世之宗)." He was emphasizing the significance of the "other world" in religion—that is, achieving "salvation of the soul" through a "transcendental sect." According to Chen Duxiu, the "culture, conduct, loyalty, and standing by one's word" advocated by Confucius were intended to regulate people's lives in the present world; Confucius kept a respectful distance from ghosts and gods. Although the parts of his thought concerning "human nature and the Way of Heaven" were relatively profound and abstract, they nonetheless belonged to philosophical reflection: "It is philosophy, not religion." In terms of social function, Confucius led people to conduct human affairs in accordance with the Way of Heaven; it was "an education of moral transformation (教化之教), not a religion of divine teaching (宗教之教)." Chen Duxiu reminded Kang Youwei: "Our country is not a religious nation... even if one were to force the fabrication of a sect and establish a cult leader, they would possess no authority or glory." It can be seen that, in Chen Duxiu’s view, the fact that the historical teachings of Confucius were not a religion was indisputable. Kang Youwei’s advocacy for establishing a Confucian religion was a "fabrication" that "stirred up waves on calm water, deluded the people, and slandered Confucius," making it difficult to achieve results within the Chinese cultural context.
In the Confucian religion debate, although Chen Duxiu’s critiques were focused on Kang Youwei, there was no direct back-and-forth debate between the two men. After Chen Duxiu published several articles on Confucianism using New Youth as his base, they exerted wide influence under the overall momentum of the New Culture Movement. The New Youth group also participated in the controversy through correspondence, engaging in direct ideological debates with Chen Duxiu. Among them, Yu Songhua was the member of the New Youth group who discussed religious and Confucian issues with Chen Duxiu most frequently and deeply. The focus revolved around the nature of religion and Confucianism, mostly involving religious theoretical issues. Yu Songhua’s arguments were highly appraised by Chen Duxiu: "Since I have taken up the pen to discuss the Confucian issue in this journal, among the opposing opinions I have received, none have been as refined in logic and clear in language as yours."
Yu Songhua believed that religion "regulates the conduct of life in the form of faith," and that there were "many varieties." According to the deity worshipped, religions could be divided into polytheistic, monotheistic, and pantheistic; according to doctrine, they could be divided into ethical and non-ethical. According to Yu Songhua, the degree of development of religious content also varied; those "at the peak of development" were those where "ethical content and religious content are entirely merged." In this regard, Yu Songhua adopted a relatively broad understanding of religion and did not make a proper distinction between ethics and religion. Based on the above criteria, and combining the discourses of Japanese and Western scholars, Yu Songhua believed that "Confucianism is a pantheistic, ethical religion."
In response to Yu Songhua’s viewpoint, Chen Duxiu continued to emphasize the characteristics of religion as a "transcendental sect": "I submit that the fundamental function of religion lies in being transcendental—providing a place of spiritual refuge for the turmoil of human life." The core of Chen Duxiu’s thought was to fundamentally distinguish religion from ethics and morality, thereby denying the rationality of the existence of an "ethical religion." According to Chen Duxiu, religion and ethics serve the functions of "providing refuge for the human spirit" and "regulating human conduct" respectively; while the human spirit can find refuge in the transcendental, human conduct can only be grounded in the world of men. In Chen Duxiu’s view, the two have their respective responsibilities and must not be confused.
On this basis, Chen Duxiu further distinguished the relationship between religion and ethics/morality. He stated: "As a phenomenon, religion... in its fundamental spirit, belongs to 'heteronomous faith' (yita de xinyang), taking the divine will as the supreme command; ethics and morality belong to 'autonomous awakening' (ziyi de jue wu), taking conscience as the supreme command." According to Chen's description, the fundamental spirit of religion belongs to "heteronomous faith"—the "other" (ta) in "heteronomous" being the "divine will"—while ethics and morality belong to "autonomous awakening." From a Marxist perspective, religion is a "fantastic reflection" of the "empirical world" in the minds of men through "thought" and "imagination." "Religion by its very essence drains man and nature of all content and transfers this content to the phantom of a distant God." As a "form of supra-human power," "God" is often endowed with an "omnipotence," "eternity," and "universality" distinct from humanity. This is a "wholly alien, infinitely powerful, and unconquerable force." What Chen Duxiu called "heteronomous faith" is precisely a reflection of this alien force. It is evident that Chen still discussed the fundamental spirit of religion and its difference from ethics/morality through the lens of the relationship between man and God. Using this as a criterion, he further judged Confucianism: "Confucius did not speak of the supernatural, nor did he know of life and death; thus, Confucianism is naturally not a religion." He pointed out: "In fact, the essence of Confucius lay in ancestral narration [6] of the Ruist school and the organization of a systematic theory of ethics. Establishing a school of religion was not his forte."
Looking at the above discourse as a whole, Chen Duxiu’s basic determination regarding the essence of religion and his specific understanding of Confucianism can be summarized as follows: first, religion is a world-transcending (chushi) [7] teaching, while Confucianism is a world-engaging (ru shi) law; second, religion takes the divine will as its supreme command and belongs to heteronomous faith, whereas Confucius did not speak of gods or ghosts. Based on these two points, Confucianism is not a religion but a systematized ethical theory. Combined with Chen Duxiu’s earlier total negation of religion based on the trend of scientific thought, this argument can actually be seen as a relatively positive [evaluation] of Confucianism.
III. "In Today’s World, Can Religion Really Be Abolished?": Discussions and Reflections on the Ultimate Trend of Religious Development
As the understanding and discussion of the essence of religion gradually deepened, the Confucianism controversy also touched upon the functions and development trends of religion. Chen Duxiu and Yu Songhua discussed whether religion could be abolished from the perspective of its social function of "benefiting the masses." Li Dazhao also addressed the functions of religion but focused more on exploring its roots from the perspective of socio-economics and the development of human society. This contained elements of historical materialism and gradually became an important intellectual weapon for analyzing religious issues and leading the religious controversy.
Yu Songhua posed a question to Chen Duxiu: "In today’s world, can religion really be abolished?" In his view, so long as the degree of development of any society or state "has not reached an ideal state of perfection," its people "cannot be without something to believe in spiritually." Regarding the social environment of China in the early years of the Republic, Yu believed that "education is not yet universal, and we still cannot do without reliance on religion to provide relief." What Yu Songhua described represents a realist functionalist theory of religion. Overall, Chen Duxiu's attitude remained relatively firm, and he provided clear assertions in two respects. First, "As for the beneficial parts of religion, I maintain that art and philosophy can replace them." According to Chen, the "beneficial parts" here refer to the value of religion in establishing spiritual faith and improving the morality of the human heart—"suppressing cruelty and encouraging goodness is not without benefit to the masses." In Chen’s view, art and philosophy could substitute for these religious functions; thus he said: "Even without religion, we may not necessarily lack spiritual faith." Second, "The harms of religion are manifest and undeniable." According to Chen, although religion benefits the masses by "suppressing cruelty and encouraging goodness," looking at the various religions of the world, "all have more harm than benefit," being a "major source of weakness" and an "obstacle to the improvement of civilization." Through comparison, it is clear that Yu Songhua focused on the cautionary and regulatory role of religion regarding the human heart, morality, and the ethical order, and thus felt anxiety over the abolition of religion. Chen Duxiu discussed religion and science in the sense of the universality of human progress; in his view, human evolution can only "develop day by day" if it follows the track of science. If one has blind faith in religion, "haste will not bring success" (yu su ze bu da) [8], and "all religions are of no help to governance and civilization."
Based on his confidence in scientific development, Chen Duxiu advocated "replacing religion with science" and reached the conclusion on the ultimate trend of religious development that "all religions are among those to be discarded." Here, he referred to science as "natural law," which possesses objectivity, universality, and necessity, rather than being a law of thought existing in people's subjective ideas, nor merely the natural sciences. He said: "Natural laws are universal, permanent, and necessary; science belongs to this category. Man-made laws are partial, temporary, and ought-to-be; religion, morality, and law all belong to this category." Overall, Chen Duxiu’s understanding of science can be categorized into three levels, which logically form a process of gradual deepening: (1) initially as a mode of thinking or a rule characterized by rational empiricism, standing in opposition to imagination; (2) as natural science for exploring the truth of the universe and human life; (3) as a universal, permanent, and necessary law of human evolution. In the horizon of the scientific trend of thought, religion was merely a phenomenon in sharp decline that would eventually vanish.
Regarding the development trend of religion, Li Dazhao focused on exploring its roots from the perspective of socio-economics and human social development. In his 1917 work War and Population, Li elucidated the relationship between religion and politics, war, and economy (livelihood). "As human culture advances day by day, outside of ancestral worship, religious rituals gradually emerge to unify the spirit of the group and govern its thoughts. And this thing called religion also has a close relationship with war." "Even wars of religion and politics have their source in nothing other than the problem of livelihood (shengji)." Li’s description contains the socio-political functions of religion—the so-called integration and unification of the "group's" spirit and thought is similar to what Yu Songhua called "a tool for the invisible unification of the human heart." Regarding the "problem of livelihood" as the "source" contains elements of historical materialism, where the economic base determines the superstructure.
After the Russian October Revolution, Li Dazhao took the lead in accepting and propagating Marxism, gradually establishing a clear theoretical foundation of historical materialism for religious studies. He summarized the essence of historical materialism: "All spiritual structures of human society are surface structures; only the material economic structure is the foundational structure of these surface structures." In Li Dazhao’s view, religion was not independent but occupied a place alongside thought, "-isms," philosophy, morality, and legal systems as part of the "spiritual structure." He explicitly stated: "There is no religion that is not governed by the progress of production techniques, nor any that does not change along with them." Li described the historical process—from the "worship of natural forces" in ancient times to the modern society where "natural phenomena and human society have cast off the dark clouds of mystery"—in which religion "changes as material conditions change." It can be seen that as the discussion deepened, Marxism gradually became an important theoretical weapon for analyzing religious issues and leading religious controversies, promoting the early dissemination of the Marxist view of religion in China.
IV. Separation of Church and State and Freedom of Religious Belief: Controversies Surrounding Church-State Relations
The relationship between religion and politics is a major topic in religious studies and was a focal point in the National Religion Movement [9] during the early Republic. In his early articles on educational policy, Chen Duxiu discussed the separation of church and state. In his view, during the European Middle Ages, the clergy controlled the power of education and took the "cultivation of figures resembling the Son of God (Jesus)" as their educational policy. This was the manifestation of the medieval European union of church and state in the field of education. Furthermore, Chen pointed out: "In modern times, church and state have separated; the general education of citizens invariably belongs to the state’s management, and thus the policies of instruction differ greatly." According to Chen, the simultaneous stripping of monarchical and ecclesiastical power was a "monumental event" in Western history; "for the divergent paths of church and state have already become a public rule."
During the Confucianism Movement, Kang Youwei [10] repeatedly sought support from political forces. In 1913, he telegraphed Yuan Shikai, stating: "Your promise to assist in protecting the Teachings and saving the human heart leaves me with a gratitude I cannot put out of my mind; there is still hope for China!" In a telegram to Li Yuanhong and Duan Qirui on September 5, 1916, he also said: "I request the President to follow the Portuguese example, submit [the proposal] to Parliament, and ensure that the grand ceremonies of sacrificing to Heaven and worshipping the Founder of the Religion are never again questioned." In Chen Duxiu’s view, Kang’s actions violated the principle of the separation of church and state and ran contrary to the trend of modern civilization.
After the abolition of the absolute monarchy, the church-state relationship in the early Republic mainly manifested as the relationship between the constitution, religion, and education. The core of the separation of church and state lay in the separation of the constitution from religion; this was also the focus of Chen Duxiu’s discourse. He said: "The constitution is legal in nature and applies to the whole nation; it must never involve religion or morality, lest people be given room to waver or follow as they please." According to Chen, not only could religion not be included in the constitution as a national religion, but the Confucian "Way of Self-Cultivation" could not be included in the constitution as a major policy of education. "The constitution cannot stipulate whose 'Way' serves as the great foundation for self-cultivation—it matters not whether it be Confucius or Rousseau... for law, religion, and education each have their own boundaries and must not be confused."
In addition to criticizing the Confucianism Movement based on the principle of the separation of church and state, Chen Duxiu’s discourse also unfolded from the perspective of religious freedom. He proposed: "Freedom of religious belief has become a fixed rule of modern politics." This has two meanings: first, the freedom to choose one's faith—"allowing individuals to believe in any religion and choose freely." In his view, establishing Confucianism as the national religion was actually "using the power of the state to force religious belief" and an "absolute monarchy over academic thought," which would inevitably lead to grave consequences: "Its blockage of human intelligence and the severity of its harm would far exceed that of emperors in the political sphere." Chen Duxiu was particularly scathing toward the "exclusive supremacy" (yi zun) [11] in the ideological and cultural spheres: "In my view, no school of thought, whatever it may be, can be designated as the exclusively supreme one, for this hinders the free development of thought and culture." Second, all religions should enjoy equal treatment from the state without discrimination. Chen Duxiu was particularly concerned with this point. According to him, establishing a national religion was not merely a dispute over terminology or law, but involved the actual treatment by the state, which he called "the right to equal treatment of all religions by the state." In Chen’s view, the "mingling of politics and religion" would destroy the "equal rights" of various religions and could cause "endless strife for the nation."
Historically, although Confucianism lacked the "name" of a national religion, it certainly had a broad foundation and influence, with Confucian temples found everywhere and ceremonies flourishing; it could be said to have the "reality" of a national religion. Kang Youwei repeatedly emphasized this point, regarding it as a self-evident reason for establishing Confucianism as the national religion. From this perspective, what Kang Youwei and Chen Huanzhang [12] were striving for in advocating the National Religion Movement was the "name" rather than the "reality." However, given the actual situation in the early Republic, the "reality" of Confucianism as a national religion throughout history had already undergone huge changes; Kang Youwei, Chen Huanzhang, and others were actually attempting to use the "name" to seek the "reality."
Regarding the Confucian Society (Kongjiao hui) and its activities, which had a wide influence in the early Republic, Chen Duxiu also gave his own suggestions based on the principles of the separation of church and state and religious freedom: "If the Confucian Society were merely a private organization establishing its teachings in society, the state should certainly grant it the same freedom as other religions. If it simply used the name 'Confucian Studies Society' (Kongxue hui) to appeal to the nation, we would approve even more." In his view, "establishing teachings in society" was exactly in line with the requirements and trends of the separation of church and state and religious freedom; if it became entangled with political forces, it would instead lower the actual value of Confucianism and provoke voices of opposition. Chen Duxiu said: "When a theory reaches the point of being protected and utilized by other forces, that is when Confucianism becomes worthless."
On May 14, 1917, the Constitutional Convention once again rejected the National Religion proposal; the powerful second National Religion Movement was declared a failure. In July of the same year, Zhang Xun and Kang Youwei supported Puyi’s restoration [13], which brought a huge negative impact to the Confucianism Movement. Thereafter, the Confucianism Movement as a whole entered a state of "lowering the flag but not silencing the drums" [14]. Although Chen Huanzhang and others successively proposed motions such as the "Confucius' Birthday Bill" (passed in 1918) and the "Case for the National Honoring of Confucius" (failed in 1919), their influence was no longer what it once was.
V. Conclusion
In this controversy over religious issues, leaders of the New Culture Movement such as Chen Duxiu and Li Dazhao participated actively and played important roles, which carries significant historical importance.
First, it deepened the critique of religion and theism, promoted the spread of atheist thought, and further drove the New Culture Movement and ideological liberation. Chen Duxiu and others actively participated in the controversy and conducted in-depth explorations into theoretical issues concerning religion. At the same time, Chen specifically wrote articles criticizing Chinese "discourse on ghosts and spirits" [15], which he regarded as "unconscious religion." He argued: "All the gods, Buddhas, immortals, and ghosts respected and worshiped by religionists are useless and fraudulent idols, and they should all be destroyed!" His "Reply to the Charges Against New Youth" in early 1919 can be seen as Chen Duxiu's summary of the New Culture Movement prior to the May Fourth Movement [16]. In this summary "reply," he solemnly stated: "To uphold Mr. D (Democracy), we must oppose Confucianism, the code of rituals, chastity, old ethics, and old politics; to uphold Mr. S (Science), we must oppose old art and old religion." It is evident that most of the aforementioned issues were addressed within the context of the controversy over the Confucian Religion. In short, participating in and leading the controversy over religious issues was a critical link in the New Culture Movement, greatly advancing ideological liberation in the realm of religious culture.
Second, it achieved the preliminary integration of the Marxist view of religion with the study of Chinese religious issues, serving as the intellectual starting point for the formation and development of the early Chinese Communists' view of religion. As previously mentioned, Chen Duxiu, Li Dazhao, and others developed extensive discourses on issues such as the origin and development of religion, the essence and social functions of religion, and the relationship between religion and politics. Their view of religion followed an intellectual trajectory that shifted from using modern Western scientific and democratic thought as theoretical weapons toward the historical materialism of Marxism. This formed a basic problematic and theoretical horizon for analyzing Chinese religious traditions or religious issues. This is of significant value for understanding the basic nature of traditional Chinese Confucianism and the fundamental characteristics of Chinese religious culture; it also, to a certain extent, promoted the spread and development of the Marxist view of religion in China. From the perspective of intellectual history, this can be regarded as the earliest attempt at the "Two Combinations" [17] in the field of religious studies.
Third, it accumulated important practical experience for the Communist Party of China to lead ideological and cultural controversies and ideological and political education. In essence, the view of religion is a matter of worldview, which is a deep-seated issue in ideological and political education; leading ideological controversies and responding to social trends of thought are also inherent requirements of ideological and political education. The experience gained by Chen Duxiu and Li Dazhao in the Confucian Religion controversy is reflected in at least the following aspects. First, facing problems directly and seeking solutions. Regarding issues related to the Confucian Religion, Chen Duxiu once suggested: "To solve this problem, one should charge straight in and engage the very heart of the matter [18]." This reflects his deep concern for real-world social problems and his great courage in placing himself at the center of the issues; it demonstrates both his attitude toward the Confucian Religion problem and serves as an intellectual portrait of his leadership of the New Culture Movement and his later path toward revolution. Second, continuously strengthening theoretical construction and consolidating theoretical foundations. The intellectual journey of Chen Duxiu and Li Dazhao from scientific and democratic thought to Marxism was precisely a process of exploration in which their theories matured. This process, in turn, reacted upon practice, profoundly influencing people’s perceptions of religion, the Confucian Religion, and even traditional Chinese culture, vividly demonstrating the bidirectional interaction between theory and practice. Third, establishing and expanding the fronts of public opinion. New Youth published a large number of theoretical propaganda articles to conduct ideological dissemination and guide public opinion. Starting from Volume 2, Issue 3, New Youth featured "The Constitution and the Confucian Religion," "The Way of Confucius and Modern Life," and "Revisiting the Question of the Confucian Religion" as the lead articles for three consecutive issues, and published related articles by Gao Yihan, Cai Yuanpei, Wu Yu, and others regarding the discussion on the Confucian Religion. The journal's "Correspondence" and "Reader's Forum" sections served as bridges for ideological exchange between editors and readers, transmitting voices from all walks of life regarding the Confucian Religion and playing an important role in consolidating strength and amplifying the momentum of the controversy. Fourth, emphasizing the guidance of the power of youth. The exchanges and interactions between Chen Duxiu and Yu Songhua and others demonstrate his role as a leader of the New Culture Movement in providing spiritual encouragement and ideological guidance to the youth. This process also stimulated Chen Duxiu's own theoretical reflections and was of great significance to the further development of his intellectual propositions. In conclusion, this ideological controversy accumulated practical experience in terms of leadership, theoretical construction, and the building of positions [19], providing important references for ideological and political education and propaganda, ideological, and cultural work in the New Era.
(Author Profiles: Gu Mingshu is a doctoral candidate at the Faculty of Marxism, Northeast Normal University, and a lecturer at the School of Marxism, Tangshan Normal University; Hu Xiaohong is a professor and doctoral supervisor at the Faculty of Marxism, Northeast Normal University)
Online Editor: Tong Xin Source: Science and Atheism, Issue 2