The Development Code from Poverty Alleviation to Rural Revitalization
Poverty is a persistent ailment of human society and a common challenge faced by the entire world. Anti-poverty efforts have consistently been a major priority for national governance throughout history, both in China and abroad.
The year 2025 marks the final year of the five-year transition period following the completion of the arduous tasks of poverty alleviation. The "15th Five-Year Plan" period will usher in a new stage of shifting toward normalized assistance. In this issue of "Dialogue with Economists," we invited Professor Wang Sangui, Dean of the China Institute for Poverty Reduction at Renmin University of China, to interpret the logic behind China’s poverty reduction miracle from an economic perspective. We explore the paths for effectively linking the consolidation and expansion of poverty alleviation achievements with rural revitalization, as well as the global significance of China’s poverty reduction theory and practice.
Implementing the Targeted Poverty Alleviation Strategy: One Key for One Lock
Reporter: In 2013, during a visit to Shibadong Village in Xiangxi, Hunan, General Secretary Xi Jinping first proposed "targeted poverty alleviation." Targeted poverty alleviation is hailed as the winning formula for prevailing in the battle against poverty. First, could you please introduce and interpret this winning formula?
Wang Sangui: Targeted poverty alleviation is a concept and strategy proposed to thoroughly resolve the problem of absolute poverty, integrated with the baseline task of building a moderately prosperous society in all respects. It emphasizes that poverty alleviation must be more precise, with policies tailored to specific villages, households, and individuals, as well as to the specific causes and types of poverty, to help the impoverished population escape absolute poverty.
Since the Reform and Opening-up, China has achieved large-scale poverty reduction through sustained economic and social development and regional poverty alleviation programs. However, by the end of 2012, there were still 98.99 million rural residents living in poverty. Most lived in remote, deeply impoverished areas in the central and western regions or areas with poor resource conditions; the depth of poverty was significant, and the factors causing it were complex. A small portion was scattered across general rural areas, primarily consisting of vulnerable groups such as the elderly, the weak, the sick, and the disabled. If more targeted assistance measures had not been taken for this remaining impoverished population, many would have found it difficult to lift themselves out of poverty. The significance of targeted poverty alleviation lies in helping all impoverished people escape poverty through precise assistance measures, thereby ensuring the completion of the building of a moderately prosperous society in all respects and the smooth realization of the Party’s First Centenary Goal [1].
Reporter: International scholars have remarked that targeted poverty alleviation is an "art" and that China has mastered it. Practice has proven that targeted poverty alleviation can provide "one key for one lock." Could you explain specifically how poverty alleviation was directed precisely at the target and the root causes?
Wang Sangui: Targeted poverty alleviation is a complex systemic project. China had been engaged in poverty alleviation for decades, and previously, it had reached the county or even the village level. However, reaching households and individuals is of a completely different order of difficulty compared to reaching counties and villages. Finding nearly 100 million impoverished people one by one and providing targeted assistance is an immense challenge.
To do this well, the first step is accurate identification. Some locales creatively invented a quantitative identification method called the "Five Looks" [2]: looking at grain, looking at housing, looking at whether there are students in the house, looking at whether there are sick people in bed, and looking at whether the household's labor force is strong. In addition, methods such as democratic appraisal and "looking back" [3] inspections were used to ensure increasingly accurate identification.
After accurate identification, the next step was to create files and register cards (jiàndàng lìkǎ), establishing an information system to input basic data for every impoverished household, including family members, income levels, employment status, and the causes of poverty. On this basis, precise assistance could be provided. If a registered household was poor because their income was too low, we looked at why it was low. How could the income problem be solved? Should they do it themselves, or find a capable person, a large-scale agricultural producer, or a company to lead them? This led to a series of different methods. For those in the labor force willing to seek employment elsewhere, skills training was provided to help them find jobs. For those unable to leave—such as the elderly or those with family members to care for—every effort was made to provide local employment. Many regions developed "poverty alleviation workshops" to create more local jobs, with priority given to registered impoverished individuals. The government also created public welfare posts, such as cleaners and forest rangers, as a way to increase income. Another method is asset-income poverty alleviation, where impoverished households gain a share of profits by using their own houses for rural tourism operations. Finally, there is a social security safety net to provide a baseline; for households and individuals without the capacity to work, income issues are resolved through the minimum livelihood guarantee (dǐbǎo) and temporary relief measures.
To achieve the "Two Assurances and Three Guarantees" [4], in addition to increasing income, specific difficulties regarding education, healthcare, and housing had to be solved. First, compulsory education must be guaranteed, with measures including controlling dropouts and providing financial aid. Second, basic medical care must be guaranteed, for which there are many policies. For instance, by waiving premiums or providing subsidies, it is ensured that every registered member has medical insurance; policies such as exempting deposit payments for hospitalization, "treating first and paying later," and high reimbursement ratios are implemented. For major illnesses with high costs, medical assistance is available, and some regions have introduced commercial insurance to ensure that registered households can afford medical treatment without their basic standard of living being affected. Third, it must be guaranteed that no one lives in dilapidated housing. To this end, housing departments conducted comprehensive surveys and grading of rural houses—especially those of impoverished households—and carried out renovations and reinforcements.
It can be said that there is a policy for every situation, and the measures are comprehensive, addressing problems one by one based on the circumstances of the impoverished masses. During the period of the anti-poverty struggle, extraordinary measures were taken, massive forces were mobilized, funds were fully guaranteed, and the organizational structure from top to bottom was highly refined. By strengthening the working mechanism of "central coordination, provincial responsibility, and city/county implementation," a situation was established where "secretaries at five levels" [5] focused on poverty alleviation and the entire Party was mobilized for the struggle. This formed a "Great Poverty Alleviation" pattern where specialized alleviation, industry-specific alleviation, and social alleviation supplemented one another. Only this ensured that the nearly 100 million impoverished people all met the poverty exit standards by the end of 2020. We historically resolved the problem of absolute poverty precisely because we implemented targeted poverty alleviation, utilizing a particularly effective "policy punch" [6], applying the right medicine for the illness, practicing "precision irrigation" [7] and targeted treatment, and putting in "embroidery-like efforts" (xiùhuā gōngfu) [8] to truly pull up the roots of poverty.
Helping the Liberated Districts and People "Into the Saddle and Escorting Them for a While"
Reporter: After winning the battle against poverty, why was it necessary to establish a transition period to help the formerly impoverished areas and people by "helping them into the saddle and escorting them for a while"? How should we understand the requirement of "not removing responsibility, policies, assistance, or supervision even after a county is removed from the poverty list"?
Wang Sangui: By 2020, through the implementation of effective strategies—especially targeted poverty alleviation—we ensured that all impoverished people were lifted out of poverty, all poverty-stricken counties "removed their hats" (zhāimào) [9], and all impoverished villages were delisted. This was a monumental achievement.
The reason a five-year transition period was established after winning the battle against poverty is that poverty is a dynamic phenomenon; escaping it does not mean it is gone once and for all. A large number of those who have escaped poverty live in areas with fragile environments and frequent disasters, and these families face shocks from various natural, economic, and domestic risks. For instance, in industrial development, if market prices fluctuate significantly, they might not only fail to make money but also suffer losses. Given these risk factors, if we stopped caring as soon as the anti-poverty tasks were completed, some groups might face the risk of returning to poverty.
The "bottom line" for poverty alleviation must be as solid as a fortress; there must be no large-scale return to poverty or new instances of poverty. If individuals or households show signs of slipping back, follow-up measures must be implemented immediately so they do not remain stuck there, preventing a large-scale return to poverty. Therefore, establishing a transition period to "help them into the saddle and escort them for a while" is crucial.
We focus on three categories of people. The first is "unstable households lifted out of poverty." These were formerly impoverished but their status is not yet stable; they are close to the poverty line and cannot withstand risk shocks. The second is "marginal households susceptible to poverty." These were not originally classified as impoverished but are close to the line and could fall into poverty under risk shocks. The third is "households facing sudden and serious difficulties." These are slightly further from the poverty line and would not fall below it under normal circumstances, but sudden major events or difficulties could lead to a sharp decline in income or a surge in expenses, so they also require attention. By using dynamic monitoring and implementing the "Four No-Removals" [10] requirement, we can prevent a large-scale return to poverty.
Reporter: Within the five-year transition period, ensuring steady income growth and preventing a return to poverty is an essential task. How effective has this work been? How has the "latter half of the article" [11] regarding industrial poverty alleviation and poverty alleviation through relocation (yìdì fǔpín bānqiān) been handled?
Wang Sangui: During the transition period, the priority in formerly impoverished areas is preventing the return to poverty and establishing an effective monitoring and assistance mechanism. Since most people who have escaped poverty or are at risk reside in these areas, doing this work well will largely prevent a large-scale recurrence of poverty. On this basis, these areas must further promote economic and social development to lay a solid foundation for comprehensive rural revitalization. Key tasks include: industrial development, employment promotion, follow-up support for centralized relocation settlements, asset management of assistance projects, consolidation and improvement of public services (especially those related to the "Three Guarantees"), and the improvement of rural construction and infrastructure.
Overall, the results in consolidating and expanding poverty alleviation achievements in these areas have been significant. Annual evaluations show that no large-scale return to poverty has occurred, and the foundation for stable poverty alleviation is becoming increasingly firm. First, incomes are steadily increasing. Since the start of the 14th Five-Year Plan, the per capita disposable income of rural residents in formerly impoverished areas has increased by nearly 40%, reaching 17,522 yuan in 2024; the growth rate has been faster than the national rural average for four consecutive years. Second, housing quality, education levels, medical services, and the quality and convenience of drinking water continue to improve. Governments at all levels continue to increase investment in the livelihoods of these areas, implementing measures to consolidate the "Three Guarantees" and drinking water safety. For example, many places have implemented an integrated urban-rural water supply model, significantly improving water safety. They have explored the construction of "tight-knit county-level medical communities" to significantly improve rural healthcare and raised earthquake resistance standards for dilapidated house renovations. Meanwhile, all urban and rural students in compulsory education are exempt from tuition and miscellaneous fees, and the number of dropouts among students from formerly impoverished or monitored households has been kept at "dynamic zero." The participation rate in basic medical insurance for low-income and formerly impoverished rural populations has stabilized at over 99%, and "blind spots" in medical institutions and personnel in these areas have also been kept at "dynamic zero." Third, the level of industrial development in these areas is rising. Each of the 832 formerly impoverished counties has cultivated two to three characteristic leading industries, with a total output value exceeding 1.7 trillion yuan. New business formats such as agricultural product processing, rural tourism, and e-commerce are flourishing, expanding income channels for farmers and optimizing the rural economic structure. Fourth, infrastructure conditions continue to improve. The rural roads in these areas are improving daily, and the "Four Good Rural Roads" [12] are enhancing the quality and capacity of the "main arteries" of economic development.
Furthermore, there was large-scale poverty alleviation through relocation during the anti-poverty struggle. For these relocated groups, their original livelihoods changed, requiring new lifestyles and income-generating methods. During the struggle, many ways were found to help them find employment. During the transition period, measures such as skills training and employment bonuses have been used to stabilize employment. Globally, large-scale relocation is a major challenge. Why was our large-scale relocation successful? It is because the quality of life for the relocated groups was greatly improved, and subsequent support measures ensured they had stable incomes and better lives.
The "Golden Key" of Poverty Alleviation Opens the "Door to Prosperity" for Rural Revitalization
Reporter: Rural revitalization is a major task for realizing the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation. After the tasks of poverty alleviation were completed, how to consolidate those results and seamlessly proceed to comprehensive rural revitalization became an important subject. Why must poverty alleviation be linked with rural revitalization? How can an effective linkage be achieved?
Wang Sangui: China is not only a major agricultural country but also a country with a vast rural population. To improve the level of agricultural and rural modernization, resolve the problem of unbalanced urban-rural development, and achieve the "Two Centenary Goals," the Party Central Committee made the major strategic deployment to win the battle against poverty and implement the rural revitalization strategy. Poverty alleviation achieved fruitful results: absolute poverty was completely eliminated, the growth rate of per capita disposable income and consumption increased rapidly, and infrastructure and public services significantly improved. However, we must clearly see that the weakest link in modernization remains agriculture and the rural areas. Without agricultural and rural modernization, there can be no national modernization. Therefore, we must accelerate the comprehensive revitalization of the countryside.
The battle against poverty and rural revitalization are both distinct and closely linked; they require effective coordination and continuous advancement. The battle against poverty ensured the historic elimination of absolute poverty and resolved the basic livelihood issues of the impoverished population, laying a solid foundation for rural revitalization. Rural revitalization aims to achieve the "five great revitalizations": the revitalization of industry, talent, culture, ecology, and organization [13]. At the same time, it promotes urban-rural integrated development and advances agricultural and rural modernization, thereby gradually achieving the goal of common prosperity. It should be noted that the battle against poverty took place over a shorter duration and mostly adopted extraordinary measures; promoting the comprehensive revitalization of the countryside is a longer-term process that requires normalized mechanisms and strategies. From the battle against poverty to rural revitalization, the content linking the two is multifaceted, involving both inheritance and development.
First is the coordination of systems and mechanisms. Most of the effective systems and mechanisms created during the battle against poverty can be extended to rural revitalization, such as the working mechanism of "central planning, provincial responsibility, and city/county implementation," adhering to the practice of "five levels of secretaries working together" [14], and institutional arrangements such as village-based support, East-West collaboration [15], and targeted assistance.
Second is the coordination of policies. During the battle against poverty, a large number of support policies targeting impoverished areas and populations were introduced. These need to be continued, expanded, and adjusted according to new situations and needs to be integrated into comprehensive rural revitalization and continue to play their role.
Third is the coordination of capital investment. For example, special poverty alleviation funds are converted into transition funds to continue being used for consolidating and expanding the achievements of the battle against poverty, developing rural industries, and building infrastructure. Furthermore, trillions of yuan in support assets were formed in poverty-stricken areas during the battle against poverty; these assets are an important foundation for the further development of these regions and must be well-maintained and utilized.
Reporter: Winning the battle against poverty relied on industrial poverty alleviation as an important lever. Among the "five great revitalizations" of the countryside, industrial revitalization is placed at the forefront. Please discuss how to better link these from an industrial perspective.
Wang Sangui: For the battle against poverty, industrial poverty alleviation was a core component of the "five batches" project [16] of targeted poverty alleviation and the fundamental strategy for achieving sustainable and stable poverty eradication. Industrial revitalization is the top priority of comprehensive rural revitalization; it provides the material basis and a steady stream of momentum for achieving other rural revitalization goals. To achieve an effective transition from the battle against poverty to rural revitalization, we must do a good job in linking industrial poverty alleviation with industrial revitalization.
Industrial poverty alleviation and industrial revitalization possess an inherent consistency. The former promoted the development of characteristic industries in impoverished areas and nurtured new types of agricultural management entities; the latter can consolidate and improve the quality of industrial poverty alleviation and promote the optimization and upgrading of poverty alleviation industries. At the same time, several issues must be noted when organically linking the two. Industrial poverty alleviation projects generally have low technical content, short industrial chains, and low industrial integration, bringing limited benefits to farmers. To further adapt to the requirements of industrial revitalization, corresponding adjustments and arrangements must be made to address realistic problems. First, top-level design must be optimized to scientifically plan local industrial projects, avoiding the blind pursuit of short-term gains. Second, the integrated development of the primary, secondary, and tertiary industries must be achieved to extend the industrial chain. Third, the leading capacity of new types of management entities must be enhanced, and their interest-linking mechanisms with the population lifted out of poverty must be improved. The continuous development of industry in areas lifted out of poverty should fully play its role in preventing a return to poverty and drive increased income for households lifted out of poverty. Only in this way can we gradually narrow the development gap between urban and rural areas and achieve common prosperity.
Normalized Targeted Support Must Keep Up After the Transition Period Ends
Reporter: This year marks the beginning of the "15th Five-Year Plan" [17]. Doing a good job in work related to "agriculture, rural areas, and farmers" is of vital importance. General Secretary Xi Jinping emphasized: "We must continuously consolidate and expand the achievements of the battle against poverty, incorporate normalized assistance into the overall implementation of the rural revitalization strategy, and resolutely hold the bottom line of preventing any large-scale return to poverty." Compared with five years ago, conditions in areas lifted out of poverty have significantly improved across all sectors, and development vitality and stamina have been markedly strengthened. Why is it still necessary to emphasize holding the "bottom line"?
Wang Sangui: Holding the bottom line of preventing a large-scale return to poverty is of great significance for comprehensive rural revitalization. To achieve the goal of common prosperity, the population lifted out of poverty and the low-income population must not only keep up with the pace of development but also achieve faster development. Currently, although areas lifted out of poverty have made significant progress, there are still many shortcomings.
For instance, industrial development as a whole still faces the problems of being "small, scattered, and weak." Currently, some industrial chains in counties lifted out of poverty are short, product added value is low, risk resistance is weak, market competitiveness is not strong, and technological content is low. The mechanisms by which industry drives income growth for farmers still face problems of instability and lack of sustainability. The interest-linking relationships established between households lifted out of poverty and new types of agricultural management entities are sometimes quite loose; once market fluctuations occur, these loose mechanisms easily break, affecting the stability and sustainability of farmers' incomes.
Furthermore, the shortage of talent remains a key factor restricting development. In areas lifted out of poverty, there is a serious outflow of young and middle-aged labor, and the problems of aging and low educational levels among the left-behind population are prominent. There is a shortage of practical rural talent and operations management talent, and it is difficult to introduce urgently needed talent. The industries in some areas lifted out of poverty find it hard to achieve transformation and upgrading due to this lack of talent.
In addition, infrastructure and public services in areas lifted out of poverty still face funding gaps, and the capacity of financial services to support comprehensive rural revitalization is still insufficient. The breadth and depth of insurance coverage for characteristic agricultural industries are also inadequate. Because various risk factors will still exist after the transition period ends, we must still "lend a hand" to the rural low-income population. By establishing a unified monitoring and categorized assistance mechanism, we can secure the bottom line of people’s livelihoods and resolutely prevent any large-scale return to poverty.
Reporter: The "15th Five-Year Plan" proposals suggested: "Coordinate the establishment of a normalized mechanism to prevent a return to poverty and ensure targeted assistance." Why highlight the term "normalized"?
Wang Sangui: Achieving common prosperity is a long-term historical process. We cannot adopt the extraordinary measures used during the battle against poverty; it must be built on a sustainable basis. Therefore, it is necessary to coordinate the establishment of normalized mechanisms to prevent a return to poverty, providing regular assistance to the population lifted out of poverty and the low-income population to promote their income growth and enhance their developmental capacity and endogenous motivation [18], allowing them to develop at a faster pace.
Regarding income growth, the focus is on increasing wage-based income and asset-based income. Stable employment is the main source of income growth for low-income households. This requires providing the labor force of low-income families with assistance in skills training, employment guidance and services, and priority in job placement. During the battle against poverty and the transition period, there were relatively mature experiences in stabilizing employment that can be drawn upon; in the future, service guarantee work and assistance policies need to be further refined.
Regarding the cultivation of human capital, the focus should be placed on the development of children in low-income families. A large body of research shows that the earlier the investment in child development, the higher the rate of return. Cultivating the human capital of children from low-income families is the most economical and effective way to fundamentally block the intergenerational transmission of poverty. We must further improve the quality of rural compulsory education, focusing on training and introducing high-quality teachers, improving the digitalization of rural schools, and making full use of modern information technology (such as distance education and synchronous classrooms) to solve the problem of the lack of excellent rural teachers.
Regarding risk prevention, the focus is on strengthening medical and health security and the support of insurance policies. This includes strengthening basic medical insurance and critical illness insurance for the low-income population, strengthening the construction of village and township medical and health institutions, and further improving the quality of medical services.
The cultivation of endogenous motivation is a slow process; the key lies in encouraging the low-income population to participate and enhance their abilities and confidence through "learning by doing." As long as the low-income population constantly feels that effort will yield results and lead to higher income and a better life, their confidence and motivation will continue to grow.
Reporter: Some of what you just mentioned reminds me of the Central Economic Work Conference's emphasis that "we must persist in the close integration of 'investing in things' and 'investing in people.'" This is also very instructive for the implementation of normalized targeted assistance in the future.
Wang Sangui: Yes, continuously establishing and improving the normalized mechanism to prevent a return to poverty is a long-term task. Previously, we mostly invested in things; in the future, we must shift more toward investing in people. Persisting in the close integration of investing in things and investing in people plays a very important role in enhancing endogenous motivation and developmental capacity.
China’s Poverty Reduction Theory and Practice Contribute Experience to Global Poverty Governance
Reporter: The eight-year battle against poverty and the five-year transition period—the valuable experience China has explored and formed in its poverty reduction practice and work to prevent a return to poverty belongs both to China and the world, expanding the ideas of humanity in anti-poverty efforts. Please analyze this from the perspective of its global significance, so we can further understand its global value and demonstrative meaning.
Wang Sangui: China is the country that has lifted the most people out of poverty in the world and is one of the most important contributors to the global cause of poverty reduction. Over the 40-plus years of reform and opening up, China has carried out the world's largest and most effective poverty reduction practice, successfully winning the battle against poverty and achieving the poverty reduction goals of the UN 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development ten years ahead of schedule. China's experience can benefit global development and provide a reference for other developing countries.
China's poverty reduction process is overall ahead of other countries in the world, providing models and policy tools that can be used for global poverty governance. First is the strategic shift from "flood irrigation" to "precision drip irrigation," which allowed poverty reduction to leap from extensive resource input to fine-tuned targeted governance. Targeted poverty alleviation—through precise identification of the poor, precise allocation of resources, precise implementation of projects, and precise evaluation of effects—allowed limited support funds, policies, and projects to go directly to the poorest groups and the weakest links, significantly improving governance efficiency and policy benefits. Second is the implementation of the working mechanism of "central planning, provincial responsibility, and city/county implementation," using the "First Secretary" [19] and village-based work teams as leverage to form an organizational network covering the whole country. This effectively transformed the Party's political and institutional advantages into poverty governance efficiency, ensuring that policies landed precisely in the "last kilometer." Third, China's concept of poverty reduction transcends simple income improvement, forming a multi-dimensional comprehensive model covering industrial support, educational improvement, health security, ecological construction, and social security "floors." Its goal is not only to improve the current living standards of the poor but also to block the intergenerational transmission of poverty and promote the well-rounded development of the individual. China has explored a replicable and referable poverty reduction path for the vast number of developing countries that balances equity and efficiency.
China's concepts of poverty reduction provide new value leadership for global poverty governance. China has emphasized on many international occasions the people-centered development philosophy, advocating for placing development at the prominent position of the global macro-policy framework, and requiring that global governance adhere to common development, fairness, and justice, while opposing the further widening of the global North-South divide through zero-sum games, unilateral sanctions, and "building walls and barriers." The Global Development Initiative proposed by China places poverty reduction at the top of the key areas of cooperation, fully reflecting that China has always been an active advocate and strong promoter of the world's poverty reduction cause.
From a practical level, China has carried out approximately 15,000 foreign aid human resource development cooperation projects for more than 180 countries and organizations worldwide, training a total of more than 500,000 talents in various fields, including agricultural technology and poverty governance. For example, Rwandan students used the juncao [20] production technology they learned in China to start companies upon returning home, leading local farmers out of poverty; some Central Asian countries are also drawing on China's experience in targeted poverty alleviation. In addition to theoretical sharing, we have also established some exchange and cooperation mechanisms; countries interested in China's poverty reduction can come to China for experience exchange. For instance, Shibadong Village [21] frequently hosts visitors from all over the world who understand how targeted poverty alleviation was done through visits. This will also have a positive impact on global poverty reduction.
Reporter: The design and implementation of the transition period policies have verified the scientific nature and sustainability of anti-poverty theory with Chinese characteristics, proving with eloquent facts that China's poverty reduction is not a short-term sprint, but a long-term governance.
Wang Sangui: Yes, the achievements we made in the battle against poverty are great and widely recognized by the international community. Through the measures of the transition period and the effective transition to comprehensive rural revitalization, it is further proved that China's poverty reduction is not only sustainable, but also moves toward common prosperity on this basis, which is of very important significance.
After the five-year transition period, on the basis of eliminating absolute poverty, we have continuously consolidated and improved, and continuously refined the systems and mechanisms. Not only is there a continuation of policy, but we have also improved the quality of life and living standards of the group lifted out of poverty step by step according to actual conditions. Such practices and experiences are worth further summarizing.
Reducing poverty and letting more people live a better life is, I believe, a goal pursued by most countries in the world. China's poverty reduction theory and practice have not only scripted a miracle of Chinese development but have provided a referable solution for global poverty governance. We believe that...
During the "Fifteenth Five-Year Plan" period [22], China will undoubtedly take even more solid strides on the path of consolidating and expanding the achievements of poverty alleviation and promoting the comprehensive revitalization of the countryside, contributing greater strength toward accelerating the global process of poverty reduction.
Source: Economic Daily (January 29, 2026) Editor: Huihui