Wang Xinying and Zhang Xianyan: The Historical Process, Basic Experience, and Practical Path of the Communist Party of China's Promotion of the Construction of an International United Front
The united front is a crucial "magic weapon" for the Communist Party of China (CPC) in securing victory for the causes of revolution, construction, and reform; it is also a vital instrument for the Party in governing and rejuvenating the country. General Secretary Xi Jinping has profoundly noted: "In its century-long struggle, the CPC has always placed the united front in an important position, continuously consolidating and developing the broadest possible united front, uniting all forces that can be united, mobilizing all positive factors that can be mobilized, and gathering the maximum strength for common struggle." Looking at the composition of the united front, there has been the Anti-Japanese National United Front, established through the CPC's call for the joint participation of domestic classes, strata, and political groups. There is also the broad Patriotic United Front, which includes all socialist laborers, builders of the socialist cause, patriots who support socialism, and patriots who support the reunification of the motherland and are committed to the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation. Beyond these, strengthening international cooperation and establishing and developing an international united front is also a key component. Based on the historical background of the "two overall situations" [1] being intertwined and turbulent, systematically reviewing the historical process and basic experience of the CPC's promotion of an international united front—and on this basis, deeply exploring the practical paths for building a new international united front—is of great significance for promoting the in-depth development of major-country diplomacy with Chinese characteristics in the New Era and joining hands with all countries to build a community with a shared future for humanity.
I. The Historical Process of the CPC's Promotion of the Construction of an International United Front
Internationalism is the political principle, moral code, and behavioral standard upheld by the proletariat; international association is a vital component of the Marxist theory of the party. In the Manifesto of the Communist Party, Marx and Engels called upon the workers who "have no country" to unite to overthrow the oppression and rule of their domestic bourgeoisie, arguing that "united action, of the leading civilized countries at least, is one of the first conditions for the emancipation of the proletariat." In 1871, in the General Rules of the International Working Men’s Association, Marx again profoundly revealed the importance and necessity of international cooperation: "The emancipation of labor is neither a local nor a national, but a social problem, embracing all countries in which modern society exists, and depending for its solution on the concurrence, practical and theoretical, of the most advanced countries." As a proletarian party with a global vision [2], the CPC has always attached great importance to the issue of the united front, closely linking its own fate with that of the people of all countries, accurately grasping the themes of the times and the internal and external situations, and actively promoting the construction of an international united front.
The Period of the New Democratic Revolution: Constructing an International United Front to Secure Broad Support for the Cause of the Chinese Revolution
In its early stages, the CPC had a profound understanding and assessment of the domestic and international situation and the nature of the era in which it operated, and based on this, it established the strategic thought of building an international united front. This thought focused primarily on utilizing and securing international solidarity and support for the Chinese Revolution, especially the War of Resistance Against Japanese Aggression. At the same time, it aimed to support the World Anti-Fascist War, develop and expand the world anti-fascist united front, and contribute to the victory of the global struggle against fascism. The nature, targets, situation, and tasks of the Chinese Revolution provided the realistic basis for the CPC’s advocacy for an international united front.
During the New Democratic Revolution, the nature of Chinese society was semi-colonial and semi-feudal. This dictated that the objects of the Chinese Revolution were the semi-colonial and semi-feudal political, economic, and cultural forms. The Chinese Revolution was part of the world proletarian-socialist revolution, and thus anti-imperialism and anti-feudalism became the basic tasks of the Chinese democratic revolution during this period. Under these conditions, the CPC advocated for fully exploiting the contradictions and interest disputes among imperialist powers in China to establish an international united front and create a favorable external environment for the Chinese Revolution. Since the beginning of the modern era, Western powers had obtained various privileges, demarcated spheres of influence, and propped up proxies in China through military aggression and unequal treaties, reducing China to an economically backward semi-colonial country under the indirect rule of imperialism. This gave rise to a unique social phenomenon: "The disunity among the imperialists affects the disunity among the ruling groups in China," manifested primarily as the long-term fragmentation and internal struggle within the White regime [3]. This not only allowed the Chinese Red regime to exist but also enabled it to exploit these contradictions under specific conditions to push the revolution forward and eventually complete the task of anti-imperialism and anti-feudalism. After the September 18th Incident [4], as Japanese imperialist aggression intensified, Mao Zedong again conducted a profound analysis of imperialist contradictions in China, arguing that the reason modern China could still maintain a semi-independent status was "due to the Chinese people's struggle against imperialism and the struggles between the imperialist countries themselves." This contradiction among imperialist powers objectively created an environment favorable to the Chinese Revolution and provided the possibility for an international united front.
During the War of Resistance Against Japanese Aggression, the CPC, acting as the mainstay of the national resistance, vigorously called for the establishment of the Anti-Japanese National United Front and the world anti-fascist united front. Domestically, the contradiction between the Chinese and Japanese nations became the primary contradiction in Chinese society, while contradictions between various classes and political groups were relegated to a subordinate position. The classes and political groups that were originally in the counter-revolutionary camp gradually underwent a shift in political attitude and joined the Anti-Japanese National United Front. Based on this important shift, the CPC clarified its task as "merging the activities of the Red Army with all the activities of the workers, peasants, students, petty bourgeoisie, and national bourgeoisie of the whole country into a unified national revolutionary front." Internationally, the CPC proposed that the task of the united front was resistance against Japan, rather than a "one-size-fits-all" opposition to all imperialisms simultaneously: "We request countries such as Britain, the United States, France, and the Soviet Union to sympathize with China's anti-Japanese movement, or at least not to oppose it; on this basis, we are willing to establish friendly relations with these countries." Revolving around the fundamental issue of the struggle against Japanese imperialism, the CPC advocated for an anti-aggression, anti-war, and anti-fascist world alliance composed of anti-war countries, colonial and semi-colonial countries, and socialist countries—the embryonic form of the world anti-fascist united front. In July 1936, during a conversation with the American journalist Edgar Snow, Mao Zedong explicitly proposed three conditions necessary for China to defeat and eliminate Japanese imperialism: "first, the completion of China's anti-Japanese united front; second, the completion of the international anti-Japanese united front; and third, the rise of revolutionary movements among the Japanese people and the peoples of Japan's colonies."
After the full-scale outbreak of the World Anti-Fascist War, the CPC became an active advocate and direct promoter of the world anti-fascist united front. On one hand, "The Chinese people's War of Resistance Against Japanese Aggression was an important part of the World Anti-Fascist War. With enormous national sacrifice, the Chinese people made a major contribution to saving human civilization and defending world peace." The CPC called for adhering to the cooperation between the Kuomintang and the CPC to expand the Anti-Japanese National United Front, opening the main eastern theater of the World Anti-Fascist War, thoroughly smashing the aggressive designs of Japanese fascism, and providing powerful strategic coordination for the anti-fascist wars in other parts of Asia and the European theater. This achieved a mutual reinforcement between China's national united front and the global anti-fascist front. On the other hand, the CPC vigorously advocated for the establishment of the world anti-fascist united front. After Germany attacked the Soviet Union in 1941, the CPC Central Committee, while strongly condemning the crimes of German fascist aggression, called upon the whole Party: "At present, the task of Communists throughout the world is to mobilize the people of all countries to organize an international united front to struggle against fascism, to defend the Soviet Union, to defend China, and to defend the freedom and independence of all nations. At this time, all forces must be concentrated on opposing fascist enslavement." The CPC believed that all countries and nations in the world were divided into two main camps: "the fascist camp conducting an aggressive war and the anti-fascist camp conducting a war of liberation." Based on this, it issued the Directive of the Central Committee of the CPC on the Pacific Anti-Japanese United Front, proposing that "the central task of our people, all overseas compatriots, and all Southeast Asian nations in the war of resistance is to establish and develop a broad united front for the Pacific nations against Japan and fascism."
The Period of Socialist Revolution and Construction: Promoting the Construction of an International United Front Against Hegemonism
In the early years of the People's Republic of China, the CPC faced severe challenges to the nation's sovereignty, security, and development interests under the bipolar structure. The importance and urgency of building a new international united front became centrally apparent. From the founding of the PRC to the early 1960s, the CPC formulated and implemented three basic diplomatic policies: "starting anew" (另起炉灶), "cleaning the house before inviting guests" (打扫干净屋子再请客), and "leaning to one side" (一边倒) [5]. New China joined the socialist camp headed by the Soviet Union, enabling it to quickly gain a solid foothold in international affairs. During this period, the CPC's promotion of an international united front had two main pillars: first, aiming at consolidating political power and building the nation, it comprehensively deepened cooperation with socialist countries. New China successively established diplomatic relations with more than a dozen socialist countries, including the Soviet Union, and signed the Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship, Alliance, and Mutual Assistance in 1950. This not only deepened friendly cooperation and consolidated the socialist camp but also secured a favorable international environment and more international support. Second, it established the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence [6], opposing hegemonism and power politics, and promoting the development of a world peace united front. On the eve of the founding of New China, the CPC issued a peace initiative: "unite with all peace-loving and freedom-loving countries, nations, and peoples, first of all the Soviet Union and the New Democracies, as our allies, to jointly oppose the imperialist plots to provoke war and strive for lasting world peace." While resolutely opposing colonialist and imperialist aggression and interference, the CPC firmly advocated that "all oppressed nations must be independent," actively supporting national liberation causes in Asia, Africa, and Latin America: "We must give active support to the national independence and liberation movements of the countries in Asia, Africa, and Latin America, as well as the peace movements and just struggles of all countries in the world."
From the mid-to-late 1960s to the late 1970s, the international landscape underwent major changes: the Soviet Union's tendencies toward hegemonism and expansionism intensified, leading to the disintegration of the socialist camp; meanwhile, the growing trend toward independence among Japan and European countries led to cracks in the imperialist camp. Accompanied by the rising tide of national liberation worldwide, a large number of newly independent developing countries in Asia, Africa, and Latin America entered the historical stage, strengthening the forces for world peace and development. Accurately grasping these new trends, the CPC established the "one line, one large area" (一条线、一大片) [7] diplomatic strategy, achieving a relaxation of relations with Western countries represented by the United States, strengthening equal cooperation with the vast number of developing countries, and promoting the construction of a new international united front against hegemonism.
During this period, the CPC's understanding of the international united front deepened in accordance with changes in the international situation, resulting in important theoretical achievements such as the "intermediate zone" [8] and the "three worlds." As early as the 1940s, Mao Zedong proposed the theory of the "intermediate zone," pointing out that between the United States and the Soviet Union lay a vast territory of capitalist, colonial, and semi-colonial countries across Europe, Asia, and Africa; he argued that the U.S. could not attack the Soviet Union without first subduing these countries. In the mid-1960s, based on the new state of internal differentiation within the two camps and the composition of international forces, Mao profoundly noted that under the bipolar US-Soviet structure, two "intermediate zones" existed: "one refers to the vast economically backward countries in Asia, Africa, and Latin America; the other refers to the imperialist and developed capitalist countries represented by Europe." In the mid-1970s, Mao further proposed the "Three Worlds" theory [9], scientifically revealing the changes in the composition of international forces and the primary contradictions of the time. This clarified China's basic position and identity as forever belonging to the Third World and advocated for uniting with developing countries in Asia, Africa, and Latin America to establish a broad anti-imperialist and anti-hegemonic united front. Guided by this, China comprehensively deepened mutually beneficial cooperation with developing countries, jointly promoting the establishment of an international united front against hegemonism and power politics, and pushing the international order toward a more just and reasonable direction.
The New Period of Reform, Opening-Up, and Socialist Modernization: Promoting the Construction of a New International Political and Economic Order
In the late 1970s, the Communist Party of China (CPC) made the historic decision to shift the focus of Party and state work toward economic construction and to implement reform and opening up, initiating a new period of reform, opening up, and socialist modernization. Regarding China’s foreign policy at that time, Deng Xiaoping profoundly noted: "China's foreign policy is essentially defined by two sentences. One is opposing hegemonism and safeguarding world peace; the other is that China will always belong to the Third World." This served as the conceptual fulcrum and policy focus for the CPC’s advocacy of an international united front during this period, guiding the enrichment and development of international united front thought.
First, conceptually, the theme of the era was established as "peace and development," [10] setting the opposition to hegemonism and the safeguarding of world peace as the task and goal of the international united front in the new period. Regarding the international situation at the time, the CPC believed that "it is possible that no large-scale world war will occur for a relatively long period, and there is hope for maintaining world peace." Accordingly, it adjusted its previous understanding that "war and revolution" were the themes of the era and that the danger of war was imminent. Guided by the era's theme of "peace and development," the primary task of foreign work was set as striving for peace. Based on this, China took the opposition to hegemonism and the safeguarding of world peace as the objective orientation for strengthening international cooperation in the new period, repeatedly pledging that "China will always be an important force for maintaining world peace. China did not seek hegemony in the past, and it will never do so in the future." China thus advanced the noble cause of human peace and development alongside peace-loving countries and peoples worldwide. Entering the 21st century, the CPC, grounded in the global trends of deepening world multi-polarization and economic globalization, attached great importance to the overseas composition and significant role of the patriotic united front. This pushed the transition of the united front from a "Chinese dimension" to a "world dimension." Proceeding from China’s fundamental interests and the common aspirations of the world's people, the Party proposed the important initiative of building a harmonious world. "Hoisting the banner of a harmonious world can vividly embody our country's diplomatic purpose, proclaim our diplomatic philosophy, and showcase our diplomatic characteristics and style. it demonstrates China's international image as civilized, just, democratic, and progressive, which is conducive to our country seizing the strategic initiative amidst the profoundly changing world architecture and international situation." Guided by this, the CPC advocated for the international community to strengthen cooperation in the fields of politics, economy, culture, security, and environmental protection, calling for different civilizations to live in harmony, engage in equal dialogue, and achieve development and prosperity, thereby promoting the growth and expansion of the international united front in the new period.
Second, in developing foreign relations, greater emphasis was placed on the principles of independence and non-alignment, adhering to the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence [11] as a guide for developing all-around friendly relations. This was centrally reflected in China's adjustment of the "One Line, One Large Area" [12] diplomatic strategy in the early 1980s. On the basis of independence and non-alignment, China improved relations with the Soviet Union and the United States while comprehensively deepening friendly cooperation with the vast number of developing countries. In the late 1980s and early 1990s, following the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the drastic changes in Eastern Europe, the bipolar pattern formally ended. The CPC accurately recognized that "the world is moving toward multi-polarization, international factors for mutual restraint are increasing, and the forces of peace are further growing." The report to the 16th National Congress of the Party clearly stated: "We will continue to improve and develop relations with developed countries. Taking the fundamental interests of all peoples as our priority, we will not dwell on differences in social systems or ideologies. On the basis of the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence, we will expand the convergence of common interests and properly resolve differences." This provided strong support for the international community to consolidate a consensus on cooperation and promote the building of an international united front for peaceful development.
Third, the construction of regional and global partnerships was taken as an important lever for establishing a new international united front. In the post-Cold War period, China actively constructed a new international united front centered on major-country partnerships, striving to form a system of cooperative partnerships aimed at common development. From the perspective of the international united front’s composition, this included both the comprehensive deepening of cooperation with major powers—such as the successive establishment of the China-Russia Strategic Partnership of Coordination, the China-U.S. Constructive Strategic Partnership for the 21st Century, and the China-France Comprehensive Partnership for the 21st Century—and the continuation of friendly relations with developing countries. This involved establishing framework platforms such as the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO), the China-ASEAN Partnership of Good-Neighborliness and Mutual Trust, and the Forum on China-Africa Cooperation (FOCAC), while actively supporting international initiatives launched by developing countries to establish a new international political and economic order. The establishment and deepening of these partnerships provided practical assistance for expanding international exchanges, consolidating international consensus, and developing the international united front.
The New Era of Socialism with Chinese Characteristics: Win-Win Cooperation and Joining Hands to Build a Community with a Shared Future for Humanity
As socialism with Chinese characteristics entered the New Era, the CPC scientifically assessed changes in the situation. It maintained the basic judgment that peace and development remain the themes of the era and that the trend toward peaceful development is irreversible, while also deeply recognizing the instability and uncertainty facing the world. On this basis, it promoted the innovative development of the international united front in the New Era.
First, at the value level, the CPC persists in promoting the common values of all humanity, taking the maintenance of international fairness and justice and the promotion of democratization in international relations as the value guidelines for developing the international united front. As General Secretary Xi Jinping has pointed out: "Countries differ in history, culture, system, and level of development, but the people of all countries pursue the common values of all humanity: peace, development, fairness, justice, democracy, and freedom." China not only proposes and promotes these common values but also, under their guidance, unswervingly follows the path of peaceful, open, cooperative, and common development. It advocates for strengthening exchange and dialogue on the basis of discarding ideological bias and transcending national and cultural differences. This has consolidated ideological consensus for deepening international cooperation and building a new international united front.
Second, at the conceptual level, the Party takes the concept of a community with a shared future for humanity as the "greatest common denominator," joining hands with the international community to meet common risks and challenges. As the degree of mutual dependence in the international community deepens and global threats continue to emerge, the necessity and urgency of expanding the international united front have become unprecedented. Based on this international reality, the CPC proposed the Chinese solution of building a community with a shared future for humanity—a vision of win-win cooperation and shared benefits. It advocates for the international community to work together across the dimensions of partnerships, security architecture, economic development, cultural exchange, and ecological construction. By adhering to the concepts of dialogue and consultation, joint construction and sharing, win-win cooperation, mutual learning, and green, low-carbon development, the Party pushes the international community to hand-in-hand build a world of lasting peace, universal security, common prosperity, openness, inclusiveness, and cleanliness and beauty. Under the guidance of the community with a shared future for humanity, China has also proposed a series of new concepts and initiatives for strengthening international cooperation, such as building a new type of international relations [13] centered on win-win cooperation and upholding a correct approach to righteousness and interests [14]. These provide conceptual leadership for the international community to tackle global challenges together and build an international united front for the New Era.
Third, at the practical level, the CPC focuses on two areas to promote the development of the international united front in the New Era. On one hand, it takes common development and win-win cooperation as its objective orientation, using China's development to create more mutually beneficial opportunities for the region and the international community. This includes proposing the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) and launching new development platforms such as the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank (AIIB) and the New Development Bank (NDB) for the BRICS countries, deepening and expanding global partnerships characterized by equality, openness, and cooperation, and providing more public goods for the international community. On the other hand, conforming to the expectations of people across all nations for peace, development, and cooperation, the CPC focuses on effectively responding to common challenges and threats. It advocates for the establishment of broad, issue-based international united fronts. In the face of contemporary dilemmas such as slow progress on sustainable development goals, frequent global security crises, intensifying cultural barriers, and a prominent global governance deficit, the Party has successively proposed the Global Development Initiative (GDI), the Global Security Initiative (GSI), the Global Civilization Initiative (GCI), and the Global Governance Initiative. These contribute Chinese wisdom and strength to the common advancement of the human modernization process and have effectively promoted the formation and growth of a new international united front.
II. The Basic Experience of the CPC in Building the International United Front
Over the past century, the CPC has accumulated precious historical experience in promoting the development and expansion of the international united front: it has properly handled the dialectical relationship between independence and the international united front; it has scientifically coordinated the two overall domestic and international situations, closely integrating the construction of the united front at domestic and international levels; and it has persisted in the organic unity of united front strategy and tactics, using this as a reliance to participate more broadly in international affairs and make greater contributions to maintaining world peace and development.
Properly handling the dialectical relationship between independence and the international united front
Engels pointed out: "An international union can exist only between nations, and that these nations’ existence, their autonomy and independence in internal affairs are therefore included in the very concept of internationalism." This indicates that in the process of strengthening international union and cooperation, a proletarian party must adhere to the principle of independence. Simultaneously, independence is a fine tradition of the Chinese nation and an important principle for establishing the Party and the country. As General Secretary Xi Jinping noted: "In the long practice of leading revolution, construction, and reform, our Party has always persisted in opening up its own path through independence. This spirit of independent exploration and practice, and this firm confidence and determination to follow our own path, is the foothold of all our Party's theory and practice, and the fundamental guarantee for the Party and the people's cause to move from victory to victory." Following this, in the process of strengthening international exchange and cooperation and developing the international united front, the CPC has always persisted in the dialectical unity of independence and the united front.
On one hand, as the advocate and promoter of the international united front, the CPC emphasizes union guided by common goals—asserting that independence is independence within the united front—and attaches high importance to the issues of autonomy and leadership [15], emphasizing the need to avoid tendencies toward capitulationism and opportunism. The Luochuan Meeting (August 22–25, 1937) [16] emphasized the need to "conclude anti-aggression alliances and military mutual aid agreements against Japanese aggression with all countries opposed to Japanese imperialism, provided that territorial sovereignty is not compromised." In foreign exchanges, the CPC insists that China's affairs must be decided and handled by the Chinese people themselves. It opposes any foreign interference and does not allow anyone to impose their will on the Chinese government and people; this is the vital prerequisite and foundation for China's development of friendly foreign relations. At the same time, the CPC has always advocated for respecting the right of all peoples to independently choose their own development paths, never imposing its will on others, and advocating for equal dialogue and mutual learning between governments and political parties. It resolutely opposes all forms of big-party-ism, big-power-ism, hegemonism, and power politics. Mao Zedong profoundly pointed out that the most fundamental principle for the people of Asia, Africa, and Latin America to unite against imperialism is mutual respect and equality, without exploitation or oppression. He believed that "the relationship between us is a relationship of brothers, not a relationship of a father to a son," and advocated that on this basis, "we must consolidate unity and establish a broad united front." In the New Era, General Secretary Xi Jinping has repeatedly reaffirmed that China unswervingly follows an independent foreign policy of peace, adheres to the diplomatic purpose of maintaining world peace and promoting common development, and insists on placing the development of the country and the nation on the basis of its own strength. Simultaneously, he emphasizes the need to strengthen international cooperation on the basis of persisting in the democratization of international relations and maintaining international fairness and justice. "We must persist in win-win cooperation, promote the establishment of a new type of international relations centered on win-win cooperation, adhere to an open strategy of mutual benefit and win-win results, and embody the concept of win-win cooperation in all aspects of foreign cooperation, including politics, economy, security, and culture," thus organically unifying the principle of independence with international cooperation.
On the other hand, in practice, the CPC has correctly handled the relationship between self-reliance and international assistance. Mao Zedong once clearly stated:
"The Chinese nation has the spirit to fight the enemy to the last drop of our blood, the determination to recover our lost territory [17] on the basis of self-reliance, and the ability to stand among the forest of the world's nations." Whether during the period of revolutionary war or the era of development and construction, the Communist Party of China (CPC) has consistently adhered to self-reliance and independence to unite and lead the Chinese people in continuously securing greater victories. However, self-reliance and independence do not mean that international assistance is unnecessary, for "in the epoch of the existence of imperialism, it is impossible for a genuine people's revolution in any country to win its own victory without assistance in various forms from the international revolutionary forces." Therefore, "international assistance is necessary for the revolutionary struggles of all countries and nations in modern times." During the War of Resistance Against Japanese Aggression, "our enemy was a world-wide enemy, and China's resistance was a world-wide resistance." Since the Japanese aggressors had their own alliance of robbers, China naturally had to seek allied forces. The Chinese people’s war against aggression certainly required assistance from the international populace, including aid from the Soviet Union as well as from imperialist countries such as Britain and the United States. This international assistance not only compensated for the deficiencies in China's revolutionary forces but also strengthened the forces of peace within the world anti-fascist united front. This is not to say that without foreign aid China could not have resisted; the CPC demonstrated its resolute determination to resist Japan through practical actions and led the Chinese people to the final great victory of the War of Resistance. In the New Period of Reform and Opening-up and Socialist Modernization [18], the CPC continuously expanded its opening to the outside world, strengthened cooperation with international development agencies such as the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund, obtained urgently needed capital and technical assistance, and introduced much advanced management experience, institutional systems, and standardized operational mechanisms. On the basis of persisting in autonomous development, the Party also gave full play to the promotional role of international assistance.
Scientifically Coordinating the Domestic and International Strategic Overall Situations and the Domestic and International United Fronts
In any period, domestic and international situations are closely linked and inseparable. To promote the development of the international united front, one cannot deviate from China's national conditions and the international environment, nor from the tasks and missions undertaken by the CPC and the principal contradictions it faces at a specific time. Only by effectively coordinating the "two strategic overall situations" (domestic and international) and closely integrating the domestic and international united fronts can the development and expansion of the international united front be continuously advanced.
Looking at the relationship between the Anti-Japanese National United Front and the world anti-fascist united front, the two were closely connected and mutually reinforcing. Mao Zedong once profoundly revealed the realistic basis of the Party's united front during the War of Resistance: "The two basic facts—that Japanese imperialism is determined to turn all China into its colony and that the present strength of the Chinese revolution still has serious weaknesses—are the starting point for the Party's new strategy, the broad united front." It can be seen that the direct driver for the establishment of the two united fronts was that the Japanese imperialist aggressors became the main enemy of China and the primary problem facing the Chinese revolution. This led to shifts in the revolutionary and counter-revolutionary fronts in China and pushed the revolutionary situation and the balance of forces to transition from an unbalanced state toward balance. Specifically, this was manifested in varying degrees of differentiation within the counter-revolutionary forces, such as China's national bourgeoisie, the comprador class, the landlord class, and the Kuomintang. Ultimately, under the guidance of the CPC's Line of Total Resistance, a broad national revolutionary united front—the Anti-Japanese National United Front—was established. At the same time, "Japanese imperialism is not only the enemy of China but also the enemy of all peace-loving people throughout the world." Japanese imperialism's ambition to monopolize China inevitably conflicted with the schemes of other imperialist countries to maintain their interests and privileges in China, thereby intensifying the contradictions between Japan and other imperialist nations. This provided conditions for the Chinese revolution to obtain broader international support. After the outbreak of the Full-Scale War of Resistance, Mao Zedong's understanding of the integration of the domestic and international united fronts became even more profound. In February 1938, at the Yan'an Anti-Aggression Rally, he proposed: "There are now three anti-aggression united fronts: the Chinese united front, the world united front, and there is also a Japanese united front." The consistent goal of these three united fronts was to oppose Japanese imperialism's war of aggression. It was precisely through the mutual promotion of the domestic and international united fronts that the Chinese people not only won the victory of the War of Resistance but also joined hands with the people of the world to thoroughly defeat fascism and win the victory of the World Anti-Fascist War.
As socialism with Chinese characteristics has entered the New Era, the CPC has proposed that "the whole Party must coordinate the strategic overall situation of the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation and the world’s momentous changes unseen in a century [19], profoundly recognize the new features and requirements brought about by the change in the principal contradiction of our society [20], and profoundly recognize the new contradictions and challenges brought about by the complex international environment." This requires that the new international united front must also be built upon the basis of effectively coordinating these "two overall situations." As an important "magic weapon" [21] for the CPC to unite all Chinese sons and daughters at home and abroad to realize the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation, the patriotic united front has acquired broader international significance in the New Era. This is reflected both in the continuous expansion of the subjects of the united front and in the dual nature of its objectives—that is, the need to effectively connect the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation with the aspirations of the world's people for development and progress. This serves both to help realize the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation and to make new contributions to the noble cause of promoting world peace and development. This provides an important opportunity and impetus for the combination of domestic and international united fronts. The Report to the 20th CPC National Congress also proposed to develop and strengthen the forces that love the country, Hong Kong, and Macao, to form a broader united front at home and abroad in support of "One Country, Two Systems," and to forge a solid line of defense for maintaining the long-term stability and prosperity of Hong Kong and Macao and ensuring the steady and long-term progress of "One Country, Two Systems." This has effectively promoted the innovative development of united front work in the New Era.
Adhering to the Organic Unity of Strategic Principle and Tactical Flexibility to Develop and Strengthen the International United Front
At the strategic level, the CPC has always closely integrated its own development with the development of the country, the nation, and humanity. As the Report to the 19th CPC National Congress pointed out: "The Communist Party of China is a party that seeks happiness for the Chinese people and a party that strives for the cause of human progress. The Communist Party of China always regards making new and greater contributions to humanity as its mission." It should be said that the nature and purpose of the CPC determine that China consistently adheres to the strategic thought of the international united front and endows it with distinct strategic characteristics: in terms of its nature, the international united front advocated by the CPC always adheres to values such as fairness, justice, peaceful development, and equal cooperation, using these as guidance to promote its development and expansion; in terms of its goals, the CPC always takes anti-aggression, anti-war, and anti-hegemonism as common goals within the international united front and unites broader international forces to achieve them; in terms of its targets, the CPC always regards colonial and semi-colonial countries in exploited and oppressed positions, as well as the vast number of developing countries that have achieved national independence and liberation, as important targets of the international united front, regarding the strengthening of unity and cooperation with developing countries as an important component of China's international strategy, while advocating for the development of friendly relations with all peace-loving countries and peoples; in terms of its identity, China consistently insists on being a builder of world peace, a contributor to global development, and a defender of the international order, using the international united front as an important platform to actively assume international responsibilities and strive to make Chinese contributions.
While adhering to strategic leadership, the CPC has also targetedly deepened and expanded its international united front thought at the tactical level according to changes in the domestic and international situation and its own tasks and goals during specific historical periods. Mao Zedong once pointed out: "When the revolutionary situation has changed, revolutionary tactics and revolutionary leadership methods must also change accordingly." For example, in response to the new situation of Japanese imperialism's full-scale invasion of China and the resulting changes in the tasks, goals, and composition of the forces of the Chinese revolution, the CPC put forward important initiatives in different periods to establish an Eastern International Anti-Fascist United Front and a Pacific Anti-Japanese United Front. As the worldwide anti-fascist alliance continued to expand, the CPC defined the general task of the Chinese revolution at that time as "organizing all possible forces in the world into an anti-fascist and anti-aggression united front to resist the frenzied aggression of the three fascist countries and the attacks of fascists within various countries." In 1964, in response to the rising tide of world national liberation and the continuous victories in the struggle for national independence by developing countries in Asia, Africa, and Latin America, Mao Zedong proposed that the people of Asia, Africa, and Latin America should form an international united front for unity against imperialism. Under the guidance of the strategic goal of opposing imperialism, at the tactical level, as broad a range of forces as possible should be united to participate in the united front. Therefore, the composition of this united front was extremely diverse. "No matter who they are, whether black, white, or yellow, no matter what religion they believe in—Catholic, Christian, Islamic, or Buddhist—and including a portion of the national bourgeoisie, as long as they oppose imperialism and its lackeys, they should all be united; it only excludes the lackeys of imperialism within these countries." In the 1970s, when new changes appeared in the bipolar pattern of US-Soviet hegemony, the CPC keenly recognized that under the common goal of opposing Soviet hegemonism, cooperation could be achieved with Western countries such as the United States, Japan, and Europe, and the Third World could be united to jointly construct an international united front against hegemonism. Consequently, targeted adjustments were made to China's diplomatic strategy, which effectively protected national interests and contributed to opposing hegemonism and maintaining world peace.
III. The Practical Path for Consolidating and Developing the International United Front in the New Era
Today's world is in a period of great development, great change, and great adjustment. The peace deficit, development deficit, security deficit, and governance deficit are intensifying, and human society faces unprecedented challenges. The importance and necessity of building an international united front have become increasingly prominent. As a responsible major power, China should actively inherit and draw upon historical experience, focusing on building a multi-form, multi-themed, and multi-level international united front in the New Era in terms of ideological guidance, composition of forces, agenda setting, and image building, giving full play to the important role of the international united front in addressing global challenges and promoting international cooperation.
First, with the goal of hand-in-hand building a community with a shared future for humanity and using the provision of international public goods as a handle [22], comprehensively promote the development and expansion of the international united front in the New Era. An important issue in the united front is to properly handle the relationship between consistency and diversity, which is particularly evident in the international united front. To effectively overcome the differences, divergences, and even contradictions and conflicts between international actors, a "greatest common denominator" is needed to guide all parties in advancing dialogue and cooperation. The concept of a community with a shared future for humanity provides an answer to the question of how countries across different geographical regions, history and cultures, social systems, economic sizes, and developmental stages can cooperate and coexist, providing ideological guidance for building the international united front in the New Era. It can be said that the international united front in the New Era is the strategic deployment for realizing a community with a shared future for humanity, while the community with a shared future for humanity is the ideological guidance and goal for the international united front in the New Era. At the current stage, China has joined hands with multiple countries and international organizations to jointly build diverse forms of communities. For example, at the bilateral level, it has worked with countries such as Pakistan, Laos, Kazakhstan, and Thailand to build communities with a shared future. At the regional level, it has established multilateral communities such as the China-Africa community with a shared future, the China-LAC (Latin America and Caribbean) community with a shared future, the China-Arab community with a shared future, and the China-Pacific Island Countries community with a shared future. These successful practices have laid a solid foundation for establishing and consolidating the international united front. As the initiator and promoter of the international united front in the New Era, China should adhere to the unity of consistency and diversity in international affairs, build a new type of international relations [23] characterized by mutual respect, fairness, justice, and win-win cooperation, and promote high-quality development of the Belt and Road Initiative. It should adhere to the Chinese-path global governance view of extensive consultation, joint contribution, and shared benefits, and establish a new vision of common, comprehensive, cooperative, and sustainable security. Taking the Global Development Initiative, the Global Security Initiative, the Global Civilization Initiative, and the Global Governance Initiative as focal points, China should provide more international public goods at the conceptual, institutional, rule-based, and practical levels, advocate for an equal and orderly multipolar world and a universally beneficial and inclusive economic globalization, and rely on the international united front to jointly build a community with a shared future for humanity.
Second, regard Global South countries as the primary targets of the united front and expand the composition of the international united front’s forces.
"The battlefront (战线) is directed toward specific subjects, whereas the construction of a community is directed toward the contradictions between those subjects." The key to the united front lies in uniting the great majority; the construction of an international united front must likewise seize upon the majority among international actors. Since the dawn of the 21st century, a revolutionary change has occurred in the balance of international power. The traditional structure of "strong West, weak East" is manifesting a new trend of the "East rising and the West declining" [24]. The growth and strengthening of the Global South is the most distinct hallmark of our era, which has promoted the expansion of the forces for peace and development worldwide and provided a realistic foundation for constructing an international united front for peaceful development. The status and role of Global South countries in international affairs have risen significantly, greatly accelerating the process of world multipolarity and promoting the reform and transformation of the global governance system; they are the essential constituent subjects of the international united front in the New Era. Whether addressing the threats of hegemonism and power politics represented by the United States, or achieving the Sustainable Development Goals as scheduled, the participation of the Global South is indispensable. As General Secretary Xi Jinping pointed out: "The collective movement of 'Global South' countries toward modernization is a major event in world history and an unprecedented feat in the process of human civilization." As a natural member of the Global South, China should march hand-in-hand with fellow Global South countries to become a stabilizing force for maintaining peace, a backbone force for common development, a constructive force for global governance, and a promoting force for mutual learning among civilizations. Efforts should be made to enhance the representation and discourse power of Global South countries in international affairs, pooling a powerful collective force to oppose hegemonism and safeguard international equity and justice through mechanisms such as rule reform and the strengthening of institutional cooperation. Achieving modernization is the common goal and aspiration of people across all countries. The Communist Party of China (CPC) "will always tie its own destiny closely to the fates of the people of all countries, striving to provide new opportunities for world development through the new achievements of Chinese-path modernization, providing new impetus for humanity’s exploration of paths to modernization, and making new contributions to the theoretical and practical innovation of modernization in human society." This provides a solid realistic foundation and broad cooperative space for China and Global South countries to carry out mutual learning regarding modernization and to walk the path of modernization together. Furthermore, China should expand the composition of the international united front by developing partnerships with major powers and fostering good-neighborly relations with peripheral countries, uniting and mobilizing the broadest possible international forces to participate in the united front.
Third, bolster issue-oriented approaches and the setting of issue-based alliances to enhance the cohesion and agency of the international united front in the New Era. Issue-based alliances are a common form of international cooperation, favored by international actors for their high degree of specificity and cohesion. Given the widespread diversity and differences among international actors, establishing an issue-based international united front by setting effective topics for cooperation on the basis of seeking common ground while reserving differences [25] is an effective path for constructing the international united front in the New Era. The issue-setting for the international united front is characterized by multiple fields, dimensions, and levels. China should start with representative issues that reflect the common aspirations and goals of the international community. For instance, using the United Nations 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development as a cooperative framework and the promotion and implementation of the Global Development Initiative as the primary lever, China should work with the international community to place the development issue at the core of the international agenda. Through methods such as jointly nurturing new momentum for global development and forging global development partnerships, China can promote the establishment of an international united front for development. Taking climate change and environmental protection as another example, the international community has established a multilateral cooperative framework under the leadership of the United Nations in response to this common threat. Through a series of agreements such as the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, the Kyoto Protocol, and the Paris Agreement, a broad international consensus has been formed and international synergy for environmental protection has been consolidated; consequently, the international united front for environmental protection has undergone profound development. This has not only promoted the common will and practical actions of the international community to strengthen environmental protection but has also provided an important mechanistic platform for parties to deepen understanding and enhance mutual trust. Its "spillover effect" can further play a role in advancing international cooperation in other fields. In response to the current complex state of China-U.S. relations, China should focus on countering the U.S. strategic competition against China to build an international united front in the New Era. This requires adopting practical measures to expand the "circle of friends" and forge global partnerships to effectively mitigate the international pressure brought by the U.S. competitive strategy. At the same time, it must be recognized that although there are clear differences in China-U.S. relations, both sides still have realistic needs and broad space for cooperation in areas such as addressing global climate change and resolving major geopolitical crises. Accordingly, efforts should be made to promote dialogue and cooperation between China and the U.S. in these fields, working together to forge a new international united front around focal issues of common concern to both parties.
Fourth, strengthen the cultivation, display, and communication of China’s national image to consolidate cognitive and emotional consensus for constructing the international united front in the New Era. In recent years, China has contributed a series of proposals and initiatives to deepen international cooperation and address global challenges. However, this has triggered so-called strong concerns, criticisms, and accusations from some Western countries, which have fabricated a series of false narratives to deliberately smear China's image and play up the "China threat." This not only damages China’s international image but also hinders the consolidation of strategic consensus for building an international united front. The Third Plenary Session of the 20th CPC Central Committee emphasized the need to "accelerate the construction of a Chinese discourse and narrative system, and comprehensively enhance the effectiveness of international communication." This also places new demands on international united front work in the New Era. To this end, we should base our efforts on the great practice of Chinese-path modernization, presenting the path, concepts, achievements, and experiential contributions of Chinese-path modernization to the world in a comprehensive and accurate manner. We must vigorously improve the influence of our international communication, the appeal of Chinese culture, the affinity of China's image, the persuasiveness of Chinese discourse, and the guiding power of international public opinion. In the process of shaping and communicating the national image, we must strive to realize a paradigm shift from "unilateral narration" to "shared narrative." This will allow the world to understand a true, multi-dimensional, and panoramic China, and to recognize the CPC’s humanitarian concerns and global responsibility as a major responsible party. Gradually, the world will come to accept and approve of a China that is "credible, lovable, and respectable" [26], thereby constructing a broad international united front on the basis of mutual trust and benefit.
Facing unprecedented changes in the world, in our times, and in history, China should give full play to the unique advantages of the "magic weapon" [27] of the united front in international affairs. We must inherit and carry forward the historical experience and fine traditions of the CPC in promoting the construction of the international united front, actively advance the deepening and innovation of the international united front in the New Era, and create a favorable international environment for the realization of the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation. In doing so, we will make greater Chinese contributions to maintaining world peace and development and to joining hands in building a community with a shared future for humanity.
Source: World Socialism Studies (Issue 1, 2026) Editor: Huihui