Xing Wenzeng: Social Inequality and the Opportunity for the Revival of the Western Left
In 2014, the publication of French economist Thomas Piketty's Capital in the Twenty-First Century sparked a global debate on the issue of inequality. In May 2020, the death of George Floyd, a Black man, further ignited protests against racial inequality. In reality, inequality has long been an incurable chronic disease that capitalism is unable to resolve. Especially since the 2008 international financial crisis, inequality in Western societies has intensified daily, triggering severe economic and political problems as well as social unrest. This has caused the capitalist system to face immense challenges and crises, while simultaneously providing an opportunity for the revival of the Western Left. For the Left, the key to seizing this opportunity and expanding its influence lies in adjusting its struggle strategies to address the current state of Western social inequality and its underlying root causes.
I. The Intensification of Inequality in the West
Marxist classical authors long ago discussed inequality and polarization in capitalist society, arguing that in such a society, "accumulation of wealth at one pole is, therefore, at the same time accumulation of misery, agony of toil, slavery, ignorance, brutality, mental degradation, at the opposite pole, i.e., on the side of the class that produces its own product in the form of capital." [1] They noted that "vast wealth is concentrated in the hands of a few capitalists, while the masses of the people are turned into the propertyless." [2] Although Western countries mitigated social inequality after World War II through measures such as progressive taxation and the establishment and improvement of social welfare systems, they did not fundamentally eliminate the root causes from which inequality arises. In recent years, as the power of capital has grown ever stronger, the state of inequality in the West has worsened by the day.
As the bellwether of capitalism, the United States has consistently maintained high levels of inequality, manifested primarily in two ways: First, the overall degree of social inequality is deteriorating. According to a Federal Reserve report, the share of total household wealth held by the wealthiest 1% of American households rose from 23% in 1989 to 32% in 2018, while the net wealth growth of the bottom 50% of households was essentially zero. A report released by JPMorgan Chase also pointed out that the wealthiest 10% of U.S. households possess nearly 75% of total household net assets. [3] In some regions, the degree of inequality is even higher. For instance, 2018 American Community Survey data from the U.S. Census Bureau showed that in Atlanta—which "won the honor" of being the "inequality capital" of the U.S. with a Gini coefficient of 0.57—the average annual income of the top 5% of households in 2018 exceeded $663,000, which is 10.2 times that of the bottom half of the population (whose annual income is less than $65,000). In 2020, under the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic, the unemployment rate among the American public increased sharply, further widening the income gap with top-tier households. According to U.S. Department of Labor statistics, since mid-March 2020, the number of people applying for unemployment benefits reached as high as 22.02 million, casting many at the bottom of society into poverty. Second, racial inequality is long-standing. According to the "Systemic Inequality" report released by the Center for American Progress, racial inequality has always plagued the United States; even in 1998, when the racial income gap was at its narrowest, the median wealth of African Americans was only 16% of that of whites. Since then, racial inequality has worsened daily. In 2016, the median wealth for Black households was $13,460, compared to $142,180 for white households—a gap of more than tenfold. In terms of average wealth, Black wealth is only 11% of white wealth. After the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020, the death toll among the African American population was three times that of whites, and their unemployment rate was far higher. For example, in April 2020, the unemployment rate for American women rose to 15%, but the rates for African American and Hispanic women were both higher, rising to 16.4% and 20.2% respectively. [4]
Even in Europe, which is relatively more equitable, inequality is intensifying. First, the degree of polarization has increased. In 2019, the World Wealth and Income Database released a report titled "How Unequal Is Europe? Evidence from National Distributional Accounts, 1980–2017," co-authored by Thomas Blanchet of the World Inequality Lab, Lucas Chancel of the Institute for Sustainable Development and International Relations (IDDRI), and French economist Amory Gethin. The report noted that between 1980 and 2017, the income of the poorest 50% of the European population increased by only 30% to 40%. The "European middle class," with incomes between the 50th and 90th percentiles, gained only slightly more from economic growth than the poorer 50%, with their income growing by 40% to 50%. In stark contrast, the income of the top 0.1% of Europeans grew by more than 100%, while the top 0.001% now enjoy a standard of living three times what they had in the past. At the same time, almost all European countries have failed to achieve the goal of reducing inequality set out in the UN Sustainable Development Goals. This goal requires the gradual realization and maintenance of income growth for the bottom 40% of the population at a rate higher than the national average. European data shows that inequality is not only failing to decrease but is actually intensifying. The share of national income held by the wealthiest 10% of Europeans rose from 29% in 1980 to 34% in 2017. During the same period, the proportion of European citizens living below the poverty line rose from approximately 20% to 22%. Second, inequality between countries is becoming more severe. According to data from the World Wealth and Income Database, in 2017, the per capita income of adults in Eastern Europe was about 35% lower than the European average. The per capita income of adults in Southern European countries relative to the continental average has been declining since the 1990s; in 2017, it was 10% lower than the European average. Conversely, the per capita income level in Northern European countries has risen relatively, standing 25% higher than the European average in the mid-1990s and 50% higher in 2017.
The situation in Europe and America demonstrates that the intensification of inequality is a universal problem in capitalist society. As Lucas Chancel pointed out in "Ten Facts About Inequality in Advanced Economies," since the 1980s, the degree of income and wealth inequality in various countries has been rising at different speeds, and the occurrence of the 2008 international financial crisis did not reverse this trend.
II. The Multi-faceted Impact of Inequality on the Capitalist System
Although inequality manifests primarily in the economic sphere, its impact is not limited to economics; it has triggered a series of problems across the economic, political, and social dimensions, forming a blockage to the smooth development of capitalism.
1. Economic Stagnation and Crises Are Unavoidable
Marx once pointed out that in capitalist society, "production is only production for capital, and not vice versa, the means of production are not mere means for an ever-expanding system of the life process for the society of producers. The preservation and self-expansion of the value of capital, which is based on the expropriation and pauperisation of the great mass of producers, can only move within far-reaching limits, which constantly come into contradiction with the methods of production that capital must employ for its own purposes and which steer towards an unrestricted increase of production, towards production as an end in itself, towards an unconditional development of the productive forces of society." [5] Keynes also raised the issue of insufficient effective demand. Because the consumption ratio of the bottom groups of society is higher than that of the upper groups, massive inequality inevitably leads to weak total social demand. Furthermore, immense inequality leads to economic problems on multiple fronts; for example, "in such countries, tax and other economic policies are more likely to encourage activities that are more beneficial to the financial sector rather than productive activities," and "public investment in public transport, infrastructure, science, technology, and education is less likely to be carried out." [6] All of these result in a lack of strong support for economic growth, making economic turmoil and crises inevitable.
To provide capitalism with a more stable space for development, Western societies after World War II, guided by Keynesianism, mitigated social inequality through fiscal and tax measures. However, after Neoliberalism became the dominant ideology, the state of inequality intensified daily, the social wealth obtained by ordinary people decreased, and household debt gradually increased. In 2007, just before the outbreak of the international financial crisis, the ratio of U.S. household debt payments to disposable income was 13.03%, and the financial debt payment ratio was 17.91%, foreshadowing the occurrence of the crisis. French scholar Piketty pointed out that the true cause of the 2008 international financial crisis lay in the extreme inequality of wealth distribution, as the income growth rate of high-income groups far exceeded the rate of economic growth. After the crisis broke out, the monopoly financial capital that should have been held responsible instead received massive government subsidies. The groups at the top of society not only suffered no losses but actually accelerated their pace of wealth accumulation. The extreme inequality resulting from this will inevitably bring about even more severe economic turmoil and crises in the future.
2. Severe Political Polarization
In the political sphere, a clear consequence of intensifying inequality is the increasingly serious phenomenon of political polarization.
First, the control of capital over politics has become stronger, and Western political parties have increasingly evolved into "election machines." Take the United States as an example. In 2016, the total campaign funds spent on the U.S. general election exceeded $8 billion, with the cost of the election breaking historical records. In this context, candidates themselves are fundamentally unable to afford astronomical campaign expenses and must rely on the political donations of peripheral organizations—especially the wealthy and interest groups—to conduct their elections. [7] This also determines that the various policies formulated by the government will inevitably take the will of the wealthy and interest groups as their primary consideration. Money politics and elite politics have become important characteristics of the Western democratic system.
Second, it is difficult for ordinary people to express their will through the current political system, and political participation rates are decreasing daily. In 2014, the public participation rate in the European Parliament elections was only 42.6%, far lower than the 62% during the first election in 1979. In the 2019 European Parliament elections, although the voter participation rate hit a new high since 1999, it was still only 50.8%. In the United States, although the public voting participation rate is relatively stable, there are many obstacles to participating in elections for those at the bottom of society, especially ethnic minorities and people of color. For instance, in many parts of the U.S., it is difficult for minority citizens to vote on Election Day. In 2012, the waiting time for African Americans to vote was at least twice as long as for whites. Some minority groups even had to wait for 6 to 7 hours. [8] At the same time, the U.S. also excludes some voters from elections through "voter suppression" tactics such as implementing strict voter ID laws, reducing voting hours, prohibiting registration, and purging voter lists. According to the "Systemic Inequality and American Democracy" report released by Danyelle Solomon, Vice President for Race Strategy and Management at the Center for American Progress, and others, in 2016, 9.5 million adults in the U.S.—most of whom were people of color—did not have full voting rights, and more than 30 states used "voter suppression" methods to target voters, causing the African American voter turnout to plumet by seven percentage points. In 2018, the U.S. Supreme Court, in its ruling on Husted v. Philip Randolph Institute, again applied "voter suppression" logic, removing 846,000 African American voters from the voter lists for the next six years. This ruling opened the door for millions of people of color on American voter rolls to be purged.
Third, political polarization and inequality act as cause and effect for each other, forming a vicious circle. Inequality intensifies political polarization, and in turn, political polarization further worsens the state of inequality through government policies and other means. In June 2018, during the 38th session of the UN Human Rights Council, Philip Alston, the Special Rapporteur on extreme poverty and human rights, explicitly condemned U.S. government policies for exacerbating poverty and inequality. He pointed out that the combination of extreme poverty and inequality resulted in the violation of the human rights of vulnerable groups and even the general public in American society. The policies proposed after Trump took office will lead to the worsening of deep-seated poverty and inequality in the United States.
3. The Revival of Populism Greatly Affects the Western Political Ecosystem
Populism has shown a resurgence in the West in recent years. Although this is the result of a combination of diverse factors, the deepening antagonism between the elites and the masses caused by intensifying inequality is undoubtedly an important factor catalyzing its rise. In 2011, David DeGraw, a columnist for the Canadian website Global Research, analyzed the public's dissatisfaction with the elite in his article "Economic Elite vs. The People of the United States." He wrote: "It’s time to mobilize 99% of the American public and change the usual pattern of political reform. The people are not satisfied with the status quo; they see that the Republican and Democratic parties... have been bought by the organized economic elite." [9] As inequality intensifies, the opposition between elites and the masses becomes more apparent, making the rise of populism—characterized primarily by anti-elitism and anti-establishment sentiment—inevitable. In its February 2017 annual report, the Munich Security Conference Foundation listed the prevalence of populism in the Western world as one of the three major challenges currently facing the globe.
In many European and American countries, the support for and influence of populist parties have further strengthened, squeezing the survival space of traditional parties. For example, populist forces such as the National Front (France), the Five Star Movement (Italy), the UK Independence Party, Alternative for Germany, and the Party for Freedom (Netherlands) have all seen significant growth. In recent general elections, many populist parties have secured high support rates. For instance, Marine Le Pen, President of the French "National Front," received 33.9% of the support in the second round of the 2017 election; in Poland, the Law and Justice party, characterized by strong populist overtones, won the 2015 parliamentary election and qualified to form a government independently; the Italian populist Five Star Movement received 32% support in the March 2018 parliamentary elections, significantly higher than the Democratic Party's 23%.
Beyond impacting established Western political parties, populism is affecting the political and social ecosystem of Western countries in many ways. This influence can be seen in the rise of grassroots movements represented by the American Tea Party, as well as the "Occupy Wall Street" movement with its "99% vs. 1%" rhetoric. At the same time, the wave of anti-globalization that has emerged internationally in recent years signals strong economic nationalism. This is also an important manifestation of the populist resurgence in the field of international cooperation.
The revival of populism in the West not only highlights the continuous decline in the governance capacity of Western nations and reveals the defects and shortcomings of Western democratic politics—resulting in a situation where "traditional elite politics begins to move from the center to the periphery, existing party politics faces challenges, and increasing direct action by citizens breaks through the limits of representative systems" [10]—it also indicates that problems have emerged in the existing mainstream political ideology of the West, and the prevailing standard worldview is collapsing.
4. Social contradictions are increasingly intensifying; labor and social movements break out frequently
As the democratic rights of ordinary people are continuously squeezed, inequality is increasingly provoking and intensifying various contradictions within capitalism. Against this backdrop, labor strikes in Western countries have followed one after another, and far-reaching new social movements such as "Occupy Wall Street," "Nuit debout" [11], and the "Yellow Vests" movement have occurred frequently, posing a massive shock and challenge to the capitalist system.
Although the frequent outbreaks of labor and social movements are related to the weak economic recovery and mass unemployment since the financial crisis, they are more significantly triggered by the extreme extortion and plunder of the masses by the monopoly bourgeoisie in economic and political spheres following the crisis. Consequently, many movements have directly targeted the extreme inequality between the monopoly bourgeoisie and ordinary citizens, as well as the root cause of this inequality—the capitalist system. During the "Occupy Wall Street" movement, protesters raised the slogan "99% vs. 1%." The Declaration of the Occupation of New York City explicitly stated: "We are the workers, we are 99% of the population, we create the nation's wealth, and we should be the masters of the country. Yet, we have become modern slaves of the modern world. The 1% live in paradise while the 99% live in hell—where is the equality in that? All rights are unequal. This is not the arrangement of the United States; it is the arrangement of Capital." The declaration called on the 99% to unite to create a "glorious tomorrow" for American history. In the "Yellow Vests" movement, which highlighted the deepening social rifts and class stratification in France, slogans such as "Down with Bourgeois Rule" could be seen everywhere.
These new phenomena in Western social movements indicate that the "freedom" and "equality" consistently flaunted by capitalism are increasingly being exposed as illusions. Extreme inequality has led ordinary people to realize that the essence of the capitalist system is to serve the capitalists' aim of seizing high profits, and its policies are controlled by the monopoly bourgeoisie. Consequently, a promising change has appeared in current labor and social movements. Especially regarding social movements, they are no longer limited to the economic goals of seeking wages and welfare previously set by union-organized strikes; nor are they confined to specific enterprises or industries. Instead, they give voice to the phenomenon of unfairness in society as a whole, sparking a resonance across the public. This has allowed movement participants to span all regions and industries within a country, and even spread to many countries and regions globally, ultimately forming an assault on the capitalist system. The reason why "Occupy Wall Street" and the "Yellow Vests" movement could exert such influence domestically and worldwide is precisely based on this. American sociologist Todd Gitlin, in his book Occupy Nation, highly praised the demands and popular base of the "Occupy Wall Street" movement. He pointed out: "Unlike any American left-wing movement for at least three-quarters of a century, this movement had a broad popular base from the start... It demands a more just economy and limits on the power of the rich, all of which are deeply popular."
5. Neoliberalism, the dominant trend of thought in capitalism, is increasingly questioned
In the 1970s and 80s, neoliberalism became the dominant trend of thought in Western society. Driven by its advocacy for liberalization, marketization, and privatization, Western nations implemented a series of policies that exacerbated social inequality.
First, financial deregulation opened the door for the rapid development of finance capital. In the 1980s, driven by neoliberal thought, the United States passed a series of laws relaxing financial controls, such as the Depository Institutions Deregulation and Monetary Control Act and the Garn–St. Germain Depository Institutions Act, allowing banks and other financial institutions to freely pursue maximum profits. The Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act (Financial Services Modernization Act) passed in 1999 further realized the transition of the financial industry from segmented operations to universal banking, with commercial banks engaging in investment banking activities on a large scale. Simultaneously, on the international stage, by forcing developing countries to relax controls on capital and financial markets, finance capital was able to expand rapidly across the globe.
Second, restrictions and crackdowns on labor unions strengthened the power of capital. Neoliberalism heavily criticized unions, arguing that "unions not only harm the interests of society as a whole and the workers by distorting the normal use of labor, but also make the income of the working class more unequal by reducing employment opportunities available to the most disadvantaged workers." [12] Under the influence of neoliberal policies, European and American countries continuously suppressed unions, leading to a gradual weakening of their influence and a sharp decline in union membership rates. Since 2010, six US states controlled by the Republican Party—including Michigan, Kentucky, and West Virginia—have successively passed new labor laws (Right-to-Work laws) to encourage workers not to participate in unions.
Third, policies such as tax cuts and the slashing of welfare spending protected the interests of the monopoly bourgeoisie, while ordinary citizens received fewer and fewer dividends from economic development.
In recent years, the essence of neoliberalism has become increasingly conspicuous. After the 2008 international financial crisis, capitalist countries implemented a series of economic stimulus measures. On the surface, these adopted Keynesian principles to strengthen economic control, but in essence and at their core, they remained neoliberal. Whether by cutting welfare spending or providing massive bailouts to monopoly finance capital—thereby shifting the cost of the crisis onto ordinary people—the ultimate goal was to protect the interests of the monopoly bourgeoisie, leaving the working class trapped in poverty and unemployment. During the COVID-19 pandemic, capitalist countries dominated by neoliberal thought failed to respond effectively, forcing the broad working class not only to face the threat of the virus but also to bear the bitter fruits of economic recession. In the face of these conditions, the European and American Left has engaged in profound reflection and critique, pointing out that the capitalist system and its neoliberal policies are the root cause of the people's plight. For instance, Robert Griffiths, General Secretary of the Communist Party of Britain (CPB), issued a statement on the party's official website "strictly condemning neoliberalism’s 'fatal destruction' of emergency management systems." He pointed out that for over a decade since the outbreak of the international financial crisis, both the UK and the EU, under the guidance of neoliberalism, implemented policies of spending cuts, tax breaks for the rich and large corporations, and the outsourcing and privatization of public services. These profit- and market-oriented policies severely weakened the ability of public sectors and emergency services to respond to the challenge of the coronavirus. The Communist Party USA also published an article on its official website on May 22, 2020, titled "The Pandemic and Neoliberalism are Killing Us," stating that now is the moment to end neoliberalism.
III. Intensifying Inequality Provides an Opportunity for the Resurgence of the Left
Increasing inequality highlights the flaws and predicament of the capitalist system and has triggered critiques of capitalism and a yearning for socialism among the people. This undoubtedly provides a favorable opportunity for the resurgence of the Left. Of course, to seize this opportunity, the Left must adjust its theories and strategies and strengthen its influence over social and labor movements to facilitate their transformation into socialist movements.
1. Intensifying inequality highlights the contradictions and flaws of the capitalist system
Academics have offered various explanations for the intensification of inequality in the West. Some scholars regard globalization and technological change as the source; others believe the weakening of labor unions in recent years has exacerbated the issue. Still others see Western party politics and interest groups as the political root of inequality, arguing that under the influence of interest groups, the various public policies adopted by Western governments are undoubtedly dominated by the interests of the monopoly bourgeoisie, and "the failure of government regulation of corporations can be said to be the biggest single reason that the over-expansion of top-tier wealth has intensified income imbalance." [13] These academic explanations are certainly useful for understanding the current intensification of social inequality in the West; however, fundamentally speaking, inequality is a chronic malady of capitalism, and it is the capitalist system itself that has created this situation. Marx and Engels pointed out long ago: "The more wealth the worker produces, the more his production increases in power and scope, the poorer he becomes. The more commodities the worker creates, the more he becomes a cheap commodity." [14] Moreover, "the cause of the miserable condition of the working class... must be sought in the capitalist system itself." Lenin also believed: "The first change caused by the growth of capitalism is: a mass of wealth is concentrated in the hands of a few capitalists, while the masses of the people become propertyless." [15]
Under the capitalist system, the policies issued by the government are necessarily dominated by the interests of the monopoly bourgeoisie. Consequently, after the international financial crisis, Western governments ignored the fact that the masses were falling into unemployment and poverty while they wantonly bailed out monopoly capital and slashed social welfare. The influence of interest groups on government policy grows daily; the power of union organizations that protect workers' interests is continuously suppressed; and so-called democratic politics increasingly degenerates into "money politics." The aforementioned causes leading to the intensification of social inequality are all produced by the capitalist system itself. The current extreme inequality in Western society also indicates that the basic contradictions and systemic flaws of capitalism are deepening day by day, and "patching up" the capitalist system has become increasingly difficult as a means to overcome the predicament it faces.
2. Socialist values and Marxism are receiving increasing attention
Against the backdrop of intensifying social inequality and the increasingly exposed essence of capitalism, socialist values and Marxism—which critiques the capitalist system and points out its development trends and historical destiny—are being accepted by more and more Western citizens, especially young people.
As public disappointment with social reality grows, people have begun to explore solutions outside of capitalism. Works such as Capital have become bestsellers, and Marxism has become a theoretical weapon for many to understand and explain capitalism. Many mainstream Western media outlets have also offered high praise for Marx and his writings, beginning to introduce and interpret Marxist economic theory. For many Western citizens, especially young people, Marx's critique of capitalism and his description of socialism have allowed them to see a new world. Robert Griffiths, General Secretary of the Communist Party of Britain, noted that the current resurgence of Marx's popularity in Britain is "because we find that the current capitalist system cannot solve many of the problems emerging in society... therefore, people are searching for an alternative to the capitalist system, looking for a new system, and this has encouraged more people to read Marx’s classical works." [16]
From a practical standpoint, the outstanding performance of socialist countries in recent years has also demonstrated the superiority of their system, leading to a renewed emphasis on socialist values; consequently, the number of people who yearn for and believe in socialism is gradually increasing. Even in the United States, where socialism has long been severely demonized, an increasing number of people believe that socialist propositions can better reflect concepts of equality and fairness compared to capitalism. The cover of a mid-February 2009 issue of the American magazine Newsweek even directly declared, "We are all socialists now." In a 2011 Pew survey, 49% of Americans under the age of 30 viewed socialism positively, while only 47% had a positive evaluation of capitalism. In 2016, Bernie Sanders' participation in the U.S. presidential election whipped up a "socialist whirlwind" across the country. Although this "socialism" is not the "scientific socialism" of Marxism, the dissatisfaction with the capitalist system and the pursuit of a more fair and just social system and set of values are clearly visible. As some scholars have pointed out, the return of Marxist thought and the "rediscovery of socialism" have become a historical trend in social development; the world has moved from "another world is possible" to seeking various "alternatives" and "alternative models" to capitalism. History is once again knocking on the door of socialism.
3. Adjusting Theory and Struggle Strategies to Meet Current Realities is an Urgent Priority for Expanding Left-wing Influence
The various contradictions and crises of capitalism triggered by intensifying inequality have provided an opportunity for the resurgence of the Left. However, to seize this opportunity and expand its influence, the Left must adjust its theory and struggle strategies in response to the current state of capitalism.
Theoretically, it is essential to provide a scientific explanation for the roots of inequality and propose corresponding solutions to increase public acceptance of Left-wing theory. Following the 2008 international financial crisis, opportunities for a Left-wing resurgence appeared in both European and American countries. However, because the Left failed to propose targeted countermeasures at a theoretical level, the Right ultimately utilized the crisis to further strengthen the interests of the monopoly bourgeoisie. Faced with growing global inequality, the Left has proposed various explanations and countermeasures, but these remain largely concentrated on economic means such as taxation. While these methods have a certain effect on mitigating inequality, they cannot eliminate it at its root. Furthermore, under conditions where "capital is strong and labor is weak," the tax policies of many countries, such as the United States, increasingly tilt toward the bourgeoisie, making the policies proposed by the Left harder to realize. Faced with this situation, the Left must provide a scientific explanation for the roots of inequality and the poverty of the working class, rather than merely targeting specific policies.
Practically, it is necessary to adjust struggle strategies and actively participate in and lead social and workers' movements. In recent years, as inequality has intensified, Western workers' movements and social movements have challenged the capitalist system at various levels. Generally speaking, however, these movements are not struggles against the capitalist system in the true sense. During the movements, although participants proposed that "another world is possible," the political definition of that "other world" remained blurred. To change this situation, the Left must actively participate in these movements. On one hand, it must propagate its theory within these movements to win the trust and support of more and more people. On the other hand, through alliances with organizations such as labor unions, the Left must guide the direction of these movements, transforming them into socialist movements so that they can form a genuine impact on the capitalist system.
In short, to seize the opportunity provided by social inequality, the Left must make adjustments in both theory and practice, arming itself with scientific theory so that it may be recognized and accepted by more and more people, and ultimately play a leading role in the workers' movement. Only in this way can it form a genuine challenge and impact on the capitalist system.