Wang Congcong: The Ideology and Political Values of European Radical Left Parties
In a historical period of profound adjustment within the international system and order, global party politics is also amidst "changes unseen in a century" [1]. The global pandemic, economic recession, and refugee crises have triggered political shifts and the reshaping of political forces in many countries and regions—such as the collective rise of radical right-wing parties across Europe. Equally noteworthy is the increasingly eye-catching performance of European radical left forces on the political stage. Appearing as a political alternative to neoliberalism, they hope to provide policies distinct from mainstream European politics and the nationalist politics of the radical right. Since the end of the Cold War, European communist parties have generally undergone a reshaping and adjustment of their political ideologies, party images, political stances, and organizational structures. Since the beginning of the 21st century, radical left parties in Europe have, on one hand, achieved political recovery and electoral breakthroughs in many countries, becoming influential political forces and a significant presence in domestic arenas—even becoming governing parties or participants in government, such as SYRIZA in Greece, Podemos in Spain, and the Left-Green Movement in Iceland. On the other hand, radical left forces remain relatively weak in Eastern Europe and parts of Western Europe, with some parties currently experiencing fragmentation, decline, adaptation, and transformation.
In recent years, European radical left parties and the radical left politics they represent have attracted increasing attention from academic circles both at home and abroad, leading to breakthrough progress in related scholarly output. However, many weak links remain in current academic research on radical left parties, such as studies on the issue orientations, policy programs, and ideologies of the European radical left from a holistic perspective. Although some scholars have focused on the ideology and programmatic policies of radical left parties at the national level through case studies, there is still a lack of systematic interpretation and analysis of the collective political values of radical left parties at a macro level. Therefore, this article aims to proceed from the theoretical research framework of "party family" ideology to systematically sort through and refine the common political values and orientations of the European radical left party family, thereby grasping the ideology and basic political theory of this party family. On one hand, this research can further expand the dimensions and perspectives of academic study on radical left parties and lay a foundation for comparative party politics. On the other hand, European radical left parties are a significant force in global left-wing politics; the analysis and interpretation of their basic theories and political ideologies can help us better understand the experiences and lessons of theoretical innovation and party transformation among European left-wing parties. This provides a beneficial reference for the Communist Party of China's governance of the country and further deepens the understanding of the laws governing the development of party politics.
I. Party Ideology and the "Left-Right" Political Divide
"Ideology" is a controversial and richly connoted concept in contemporary philosophy and social sciences that is difficult to define precisely. In the field of political science, it is usually defined as a belief system—a set of normative and factual assumptions about the world. Ideology undoubtedly holds an indisputable central position in party politics; parties distinguish themselves from one another based on the ideologies in which they are rooted. Party ideology is like the soul of a party; it is the sum of a party's values, ideological theories, political propositions, and belief systems, and it is the basic attribute that distinguishes one party from others. Ideology is the primary reference standard for a party’s policy formulation, and specific value orientations and political preferences are also the main reasons parties attract supporters. In the view of Ian Budge, in addition to marking party identity and promoting political participation, ideology provides politicians with a broader "conceptual map" of politics: on one hand, it frames the basic principles and directions of party programs and policies, serving as the fundamental guide for drafting electoral programs; on the other hand, it defines the basic policy boundaries and policy space for parties and their leaders. In this sense, because ideology embodies a party's basic political stance and positioning, it becomes a crucial marker for distinguishing between parties. Based on historical origins—parties catalyzed by similar historical conditions or representing similar interest groups—Klaus von Beyme distinguished nine different "spiritual families" or "party families" in the European political arena: Liberal and Radical, Conservative, Socialist, Christian Democratic, Communist, Agrarian, Regional and Ethnic, Far-Right, and Ecological.
The "Left-Right" political divide has long been the core political analytical paradigm in Western academia for studying voter behavior, party positioning, and party identity. Scholars such as Russell J. Dalton have pointed out that the "Left-Right" divide is the most important political cleavage in Western society and a vital marker for identifying citizen identity and party position. The "Left-Right" divide originally emerged from the definition of party identity based on class. In explaining the different facets of European party systems, S. Martin Lipset and Stein Rokkan proposed four main structural cleavages: center vs. periphery, church vs. state, town vs. country, and owner vs. worker, with each cleavage generating specific issue conflicts. With the outbreak of the Industrial Revolution, the intensification of conflict between owners and workers (bourgeoisie and proletariat)—the "class cleavage"—became the most prominent political divide and largely drove the emergence and rise of socialist parties. Because economic issues related to class cleavage have long been the central topic of social and political life in Western societies, especially in European countries, different political stances and preferences regarding how social resources should be distributed and how the state should intervene in the economy have shaped the basic meaning of the "Left-Right" divide. "Equality" is the standard most frequently used to distinguish Left from Right parties. Generally speaking, the Left believes that people are born equal but that social inequality is caused by political power and institutional factors; it therefore advocates for equality through collective ownership, economic regulation, and the redistribution of social wealth. The Right believes that people are born unequal and that the distribution of wealth is primarily the result of individual talent and effort; it therefore supports private ownership and the free-market system.
II. The Ideology of European Radical Left Parties
Currently, there are four main theoretical approaches in academia for identifying "party families": origins and sociology, transnational federations, party ideology or policy, and party names or labels. Peter Mair and Cas Mudde have pointed out that the core of party family classification lies in discovering a group of parties with common political goals, and that combining the two theoretical methods of party origins and party ideology can more accurately reveal the characteristics of party identity. Party origins—or more precisely, identity based on a party's common "genes"—allows for historical analysis and long-term tracking of a specific party family's identity, while the party ideology approach is better suited for synchronic analysis and can reveal transnational differences.
Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the drastic changes in Eastern Europe [2], the "Communist party family" underwent intense fluctuation and reorganization. Some communist parties changed their names and ideologies but retained a radical left identity. Based on the common characteristics and value demands of these parties, Western academia identified a new party family within the left-wing political spectrum: "Radical Left Parties." On one hand, regarding party origins, they maintain inextricable links with communist parties—they are either traditional communist parties, reformed communist parties, or left-wing/democratic socialist parties that split from communist parties. On the other hand, regarding ideology, they either adhere to Marxism, pursue democratic socialism, or advocate for a combination of socialism and post-materialism; differences in revolutionary strategy do not hinder the ideological similarity of radical left parties. In the view of Dimitri Almeida, the similarity in the identity of radical left parties is primarily reflected in the fact that they all defend the interests of low- and middle-income groups, more or less criticize the existing political and economic order—particularly neoliberal policies—and occupy a specific political space.
Currently, academia usually provides a more accurate conceptual definition of European radical left parties from the two dimensions of "radical" and "left." A classic summary comes from Luke March: "That European radical left parties are 'radical' is mainly shown in: first, they oppose the basic socio-economic structures, values, and practices of contemporary capitalism (such as opposing consumerism, neoliberalism, private ownership, and the capitalist profit mechanism); second, they advocate for alternative economic and power structures, including the redistribution of resources from current political elites. That European radical left parties are 'left-wing' is mainly shown in: first, they believe economic inequality is the basis of existing political and social arrangements and take the realization of collective economic and social rights as their primary political agenda; second, anti-capitalism is expressed more consistently than anti-democratic sentiment, although the redistribution goals of many parties may imply a radical subversion of liberal democracy; finally, the Left is internationalist, committed not only to transnational networks and global solidarity but also to seeking the global structural roots of national and regional socio-political problems (such as 'imperialism' or 'globalization')." On one hand, as left-wing parties, the European radical left views the capitalist system as the root of social inequality, advocates for the abolition or thorough transformation of the capitalist system, and pursues systemic and structural social change and transformation, while hoping to achieve social equality and justice through collective ownership and the redistribution of social wealth. On the other hand, distinguished from other left-wing parties such as European Social Democrats and European Greens, European radical left parties possess a more radical anti-capitalist discourse and tendency. Different degrees of left-wing radicalism are a key aspect in distinguishing left-wing parties. In a comparative sense, radical left parties criticize the economic and political systems of capitalism more intensely than social democratic parties—especially current neoliberal capitalism, market capitalism, and globalized capitalism. They hope to further dissolve the legitimacy of the capitalist political system and proceed to a radical transformation of economic and social systems.
Although relatively similar ideologies and policy programs are sufficient to conceptualize the "radical left" as a party family, the heterogeneity and diversity within the left-wing party family cannot be ignored. For example, Uwe Backes and Patrick Moreau, combining party origins and ideological characteristics, classified contemporary radical left parties into three types: traditional Marxist-Leninist parties, "reformed" communist parties, and "Red-Green" parties (parties that supplement traditional economic concerns with "New Left" issues). Luke March, meanwhile, divided radical left parties into four categories: Communist parties, Democratic Socialist parties, Populist Socialist parties, and Social Populist parties. In the view of scholars like Raul Gomez, March’s classification based on ideological similarity inevitably involves overlaps and pays insufficient attention to the differences in the degree of radicalism between parties. Accordingly, they roughly divide radical left parties into "traditional" and "New Left" types. The internal diversity and variety of contemporary European radical left parties stem largely from the parties' different historical legacies and the tortuous development of the international communist movement. Since the 20th century, European communist parties have undergone several splits, reorganizations, and transformations. For instance, in the 1970s and 80s, "New Left" or "Green Left" parties were established in some Nordic countries, and the Communist Party of Spain formed the "United Left" (Izquierda Unida). At the end of the 20th century, following the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the drastic changes in Eastern Europe, and the fall of the Berlin Wall, Western European communist parties faced an unprecedented crisis of legitimacy and underwent various degrees of party reform and transformation—such as those in Italy, Germany, Finland, and Sweden. Since the start of the 21st century, new radical left parties or new party alliances have continuously emerged, such as Die Linke in Germany, SYRIZA in Greece, and Podemos in Spain. This has resulted in the radical left in various European countries being at different stages of historical development, with varying emphases on revolutionary struggle strategies and programmatic policies.
The European radical left parties referred to in this article mainly consist of those that have joined the "Party of the European Left" (EL) or hold seats in the "The Left in the European Parliament – GUE/NGL" (European United Left–Nordic Green Left) parliamentary group. As a transnational political family of radical left parties, the "Party of the European Left," founded in 2004, aims to establish a society that transcends the logic of capitalism and patriarchy. The EL's manifesto states: "On both national and international levels, we uphold the traditions and values of socialism, communism, the labor movement, feminism, the feminist movement and gender equality, environmental movements and sustainable development, peace and international solidarity, human rights, humanism, and anti-fascism; we uphold the ideas of progress and freedom." This reflects to some extent the complexity of radical left forces, particularly the differences in policy preferences created by disparate historical origins and political environments. Collectively, some European radical left parties still adhere to the guiding status of Marxist theory, while others, such as "New Left" parties, have undergone significant adjustments and reinterpretations of their ideology, particularly in providing theoretical responses to currents such as democratic socialism and eco-socialism.
Traditional radical left parties, such as the Communist Party of Greece (KKE), the Portuguese Communist Party (PCP), the French Communist Party (PCF), and the Communist Refoundation Party (PRC) in Italy, continue to use classical Marxism as their guiding ideology. For example, the Portuguese Communist Party states in its program that "the ideological foundation of the PCP is Marxism-Leninism: a dialectical materialist worldview, a scientific tool for analyzing reality, and a guide for praxis that is constantly updated and enriched through the progress of knowledge and experience"; it further asserts that "the Party’s ultimate goal is the construction of socialism and communism, liberating society from capitalist exploitation and oppression." The Communist Party of Greece also specifies in its program that its guiding ideology is the revolutionary worldview of Marxism-Leninism. Beyond Communist Parties, some other radical left parties also adopt Marxism as one of their guiding ideologies, specifically absorbing Marxist critiques of the political economy of capitalist society and his ideas on the construction of a future socialist and communist society.
Successor parties to the Western European Communist Parties (democratic left parties) and newly established "New Left" parties have basically ceased to hold fast to communist faith, undergoing ideological de-radicalization. Since the 1990s, as European Social Democratic parties shifted toward the right of the political spectrum, "democratic socialism" began to become a term utilized by a segment of radical left parties. The Left (Die Linke) in Germany, the United Left (IU) in Spain, the Coalition of the Radical Left (Syriza) in Greece, the Czech Social Democratic Party, the Workers’ Party of Switzerland, the Socialist Party in the Netherlands, and some Nordic radical left parties all take democratic socialism as their goal of struggle. They have abandoned the strategic choice of violent revolution, advocating for the realization of socialism through parliamentary democracy, and supporting the welfare state and public ownership while generally opposing the neoliberal politics of Social Democratic parties. For instance, the German Left Party's 2011 program stated: "We wish to establish a democratic socialist society—a society that recognizes freedom and equality, where the free development of each is the condition for the development of all. We are committed to changing political discourse and hope to pave the way for a fundamental transformation of society to eventually overcome capitalism." In the view of these parties, their "democratic socialism" clings more closely to the traditional positions of Social Democracy—that is, defending the goals of traditional democratic socialism, emphasizing the relationship between democracy and socialism, economic equality, social justice, public ownership, and state welfarism. Some European radical left parties have potentially "democratic-socialized," effectively becoming the "guardians of traditional social democratic values and policies," a role that frequently causes internal party controversy.
Meanwhile, the ideological positioning of some "New Left" radical left parties, particularly "Green Left" parties, is deeply influenced by eco-socialism. As a Green Left social current, eco-socialism rose in the 1970s and can be viewed as a theoretical response by Marxism (socialism) to global ecological and environmental issues. For example, at its fifth party congress in 2007, the Left Bloc (BE) in Portugal repositioned itself as an "eco-socialist" party. The Left Bloc critiques environmental pollution, the massive consumption of fossil fuels, and the climate crisis caused by capitalist modes of productivism and consumerism, as well as environmental plunder and the spread of pollution in North-South relations; it calls for incorporating ecological revolution into the process of socialist transformation to achieve a marriage of environmental justice and social justice. The political positions of radical left parties in countries such as Iceland, Norway, Denmark, Sweden, and Finland are all close to "eco-socialism." For example, the Left Alliance in Finland is committed to realizing a "Red-Green" future characterized by ecological sustainability and social equality; the Left Party in Sweden positions itself as a socialist and feminist party based on ecological considerations.
III. The Political Values of European Radical Left Parties
Although ideological fragmentation remains within the European radical left party family—with distinctly ideological anti-establishment parties represented by the Communist Party of Greece and the Portuguese Communist Party on one side, and ideologically moderated, pragmatist reformist parties represented by the German Left Party, Syriza in Greece, and the Swedish Left Party on the other—they share significant commonalities and similarities in political philosophy and values as members of the same party family. The political identity of the European radical left is primarily built upon two dimensions: an all-encompassing critique of capitalism and the core political demands of socialism. At the national level, radical left parties offer similar yet nuanced interpretations of their fundamental principles. For instance, the German Left Party views democracy, freedom, equality, justice, internationalism, and solidarity as its most fundamental values; the Communist Party of Bohemia and Moravia (KSČM) in the Czech Republic takes the construction of a free, equal, and democratic socialist society as its goal; and the basic values of the Finnish Left Alliance are equality, freedom, and sustainable development. By surveying the political programs of radical left parties across Europe, we can summarize their common political creed and value orientations.
- Equality and Social Justice
Equality and social justice are the most fundamental value principles and political goals for all left-wing parties, including the radical left; "equality is the starting point for all left-wing thinking and action." European radical left parties generally believe that all people are equal and have the right to a high quality of life, and that equality is a primary standard for measuring education, work, living conditions, gender, age, and income. European radical left parties are committed to eliminating the vast differences and inequalities in income, property, and power caused by ownership: "Our goal is human liberation, freeing people from any form of oppression, exploitation, and exclusion." In terms of substance, this mainly includes economic equality, social equality, and gender equality.
First, the equal right for all to obtain work and income. Defending the basic rights and interests of the working class and the lower-to-middle strata of the populace is rooted in the core political identity of the European radical left. Consequently, a basic goal of these parties is to eliminate mass unemployment and create conditions for the realization of the right to work for all citizens. In the view of the European radical left, work is a vital component of social status and self-respect, a basic civil right, and an important path to personal self-actualization. They hope to provide more and better jobs through economic growth, eliminate the wealth gap and class distinctions, and achieve the sharing of social wealth. For example, in its fourth congress program document, the "Party of the European Left" called for an end to austerity policies to avoid human and humanitarian disasters, the realization of universal wage growth across all regions of Europe, and the introduction of a minimum wage across Europe through legislation or collective agreements. European radical left parties also oppose all forms of precarious work and suggest reducing working hours without a reduction in pay. For instance, the German Left Party advocates for banning temporary work, achieving equal pay for equal work between contract/temporary workers and permanent employees, and introducing wage supplements for flexible contract and temporary workers.
Second, the equal right for all to access social welfare. European radical left parties emphasize that everyone has an equal right to high-quality medical services, free education, elderly care, quality daily childcare, and other social services. Thus, strengthening public services and the construction of the welfare state—building a society shared by all based on solidarity and social justice—is the basic vision of these parties. For example, the Finnish Left Alliance states that it aims to eliminate obstacles to a good life caused by age, gender, ethnic belief, language, health, disability, sexual orientation, and place of residence, and is committed to the well-being of all people and the balanced development of regions. The basic prerequisite for achieving these goals is a strong public-ownership economy, massive state investment and subsidies for social welfare, and the nationalization and democratic management of basic public services. In this sense, European radical left parties oppose neoliberal economic policies at both the national and EU levels, oppose the privatization of public services, and oppose cuts in public sector spending. In their view, extreme austerity policies, the privatization of public goods, the slashing of public expenditures, and the massive shrinking of the welfare state all serve the dominant position and interests of capital, and Europe has fallen into crisis and turbulence due to this extreme liberal EU model.
Third, gender equality and the equal rights of special groups. As a vital aspect of social equality, equality between men and women is one of the important political demands of the European radical left. Some parties directly position themselves as feminist parties, such as the Socialist Left Party (SV) in Norway, the Left Party in Sweden, the Communist Party of Austria (KPÖ), and the German Left Party. In the view of European radical left parties, capitalist relations of production and patriarchal social structures make women subordinate to men; women become the primary victims and occupy an oppressed position, possessing fewer job opportunities and lower wages than men, with gender relations penetrating every field of social relations. Therefore, the radical left advocates that gender should not be a determining factor for power and resources, personal freedom should not be restricted by gender, and the dominant status of men or the subordinate status of women are not laws of nature. For example, the Norwegian Socialist Left Party views women's liberation as its fourth major task, stating in its program: "Sexism, male violence against women, and other inequalities between men and women are the greatest problems troubling women. If we are to achieve complete equality, we must eliminate these oppressive structures." The United Left in Spain also places feminist proposals as one of its core demands and goals, arguing that "the feminist revolution must be the heart of all social transformation policies of the left" and that "feminism, as a philosophy and political practice, is the pillar of our political transformation."
Beyond this, European radical left parties oppose racism, social exclusion, and discrimination, calling for the protection of the equal rights of special social groups such as immigrants, refugees, the elderly, the disabled, retirees, and homosexuals. Humanitarian principles form the basic stance of the radical left's refugee policies; their basic consensus is that the right to a dignified existence and equal social rights should be guaranteed for all people seeking political asylum on European soil, ensuring they are not discriminated against due to race, gender, religion, country, nation, or social background, and establishing a multicultural society based on peace, social solidarity, equal rights, and understanding. Protecting the rights of the disabled is also an important demand. For example, the Portuguese Left Bloc emphasizes the elimination of barriers to independent living caused by architectural obstacles, improper public transport, and social discrimination, enabling them to better integrate into society and enjoy equal rights in public transport, culture and education, unemployment benefits, vocational training, and employment. Simultaneously, radical left parties actively advocate for respect for sexual orientation and gender identity.
- Democracy
As one of the core political concepts of European radical left parties, democracy is a key element elaborated upon in various party programs. For example, the United Left (IU) of Spain and the Portuguese Communist Party (PCP) both set the objective of their struggle as "advanced democracy." The United Left’s framework for "advanced democracy" entails establishing a federal republic that defends freedoms and political participation while guaranteeing the economic, social, and cultural well-being of its citizens. The Portuguese Communist Party declares its struggle for the causes of freedom, democracy, social progress, peace, social solidarity, and national sovereignty and independence; it regards "advanced democracy" as an integral component of its vision for a future socialist and communist society, encompassing political, economic, social, and cultural democracy.
European radical left parties particularly emphasize the intrinsic link between socialism and democracy in their political programs: "Socialism and democracy are inseparable; without democracy, socialism is merely a form; without democracy, socialism loses its humanistic essence." Radical left parties across Europe share the view that democracy is both a vital means of realizing socialism and an inherent requirement and essential meaning within the definition of socialism itself. Without democracy, it would be impossible to truly achieve joint decision-making by citizens, and the socialist goal of freedom and liberation for all would become a mere formality. As the Communist Party of Austria (KPÖ) notes: "A true socialist society must take democratic self-governance as its prerequisite. Socialism must implement the social interests of the majority; democracy and socialism are inseparable." The Left Alliance of Finland, the French Communist Party (PCF), the Socialist Party (SP) of the Netherlands, The Left (Die Linke) in Germany, the Communist Party of Bohemia and Moravia (KSČM) in Czechia, and The Left (Déi Lénk) in Luxembourg have all emphasized that the realization of their party's core concepts and basic value objectives requires a profound democratic transformation of society. For instance, the Left Alliance of Finland states: "The basic values of the Left Alliance (equality, freedom, and sustainable development) can only be truly realized in a democratic state where every citizen enjoys the right to political action." In the view of The Left in Luxembourg, democracy links social justice, ecologism, feminism, and practical politics; democracy means that all members of society can participate in shaping their living conditions.
European radical left parties advocate for comprehensive democratization in fields such as politics, economy, education, science, media, and the environment. For example, in the 2015 Spanish general election, the Podemos party summarized its issues into six aspects: economic democracy, social democracy, political democracy, civic democracy, international democracy, and grassroots democracy. In the eyes of European radical left parties, globalized capitalism is leading to the concentration of economic power and the weakening of democratic power. In other words, the power of capital (capital owners) is stronger than the power of democracy, and politics is being hijacked by the economy. "In Europe, and in each of our countries, people are suffering from the globalized capitalist policies implemented by governments for the sake of big capital and interest groups, policies which damage the social solidarity and social well-being won through great struggles." Therefore, to prevent the privatization and marketization of public services—such as social security systems, healthcare, and education—as well as natural resources, the rule of capital over power must be overcome, so that "the power of democracy must be stronger than capital." Specifically, the political demands of European radical left parties regarding democracy include: democracy in the economic sphere, restricting the power of capital and financial markets, ensuring the democratization and transparency of macroeconomic decision-making processes, and guaranteeing workers' democratic planning of the economy; democracy in the political sphere, strengthening civic political participation, establishing democratic control and anti-corruption mechanisms, and promoting electoral system and constitutional reforms; democracy in the social sphere, implementing more democratic, decentralized, and modernized management of public services to better protect everyone's social rights; and democracy in the environmental sphere, strengthening the disclosure of information on global climate issues and enhancing socialized and democratic control over energy and electricity production.
3. Freedom and Solidarity
The exposition of the future socialist and communist society by Marx and Engels in the Manifesto of the Communist Party has become the basic vision of European radical left parties: "In place of the old bourgeois society, with its classes and class antagonisms, we shall have an association, in which the free development of each is the condition for the free development of all." European radical left parties are committed to achieving human liberation, to realizing freedom for all rather than the few, and to defending the right of every individual to pursue happiness and all-around free development. Freedom and solidarity are key terms in the political programs of these parties. For example, the Portuguese Communist Party emphasizes in its program: "The primary goal of the party is to build socialism and communism—a new society free from exploitation, oppression, inequality, injustice, and social disasters; a new society where highly developed productive forces, progress in science and technology, and a greater degree of economic, social, political, and cultural democracy are sufficient to guarantee freedom, equality, high standards of living, culture, ecological balance, and universal respect for workers and the people."
For European radical left parties, although freedom creates more possibilities for individuals to realize their potential, this does not mean that freedom is without limits. Compared to other parties, radical left parties place greater emphasis on freedom built upon the foundation of solidarity, believing that individual freedom only has meaning within society and that freedom is always linked to social responsibility and solidarity. In other words, a community based on the principle of solidarity is the prerequisite for freedom. Social solidarity means that in a pluralistic and integrated society, everyone is mutually reliant and interdependent. It is in this sense that European radical left parties emphasize the responsibility of the community or the state to eliminate obstacles to individual freedom and social equality, and the responsibility to assist and care for socially vulnerable, oppressed, and exploited groups. As the Socialist Left Party (SV) of Norway points out, "Freedom requires the expansion of rights and the enhancement of democracy, but it also needs economic prosperity and social security to provide the foundation for individual choice."
A basic consensus among European radical left parties is that the capitalist system and patriarchal social structures are the greatest obstacles and threats to the realization of freedom and solidarity. Under the capitalist system, everything is commodified, from labor to relationships between people and every aspect of life: "The capitalist economic system only considers the individual’s usefulness as a commodity, as a producer and consumer of goods." At the same time, capitalism exacerbates the patriarchal oppression of women, while the commodification of the relationship between humans and nature under capitalist conditions has triggered global ecological and environmental crises. Based on this, European radical left parties call for an end to all forms of exploitation, alienation, domination, discrimination, poverty, and inequality, the breaking of oppressive power relations, and a halt to the destruction of nature, ultimately achieving an alternative to the capitalist system. In the view of European radical left parties, values such as freedom and solidarity do not exist in isolation but are closely related to values such as equality and democracy: "Equality without freedom eventually leads to oppression, while freedom without equality eventually leads to exploitation." For example, the German party Die Linke emphasizes that a fundamental idea running through its political program is: "The free development of each individual is realized through social equal sharing [7] under conditions of self-determined life and solidarity; we regard this as the primary guiding principle of a society based on solidarity. There, the dominance of profit will be overcome, and stable, good living conditions for all will be the goal of economic management." Many European radical left parties point out that the comprehensive democratization of all spheres of society is the most important path to realizing value objectives such as freedom, solidarity, equality, and social justice.
4. Sustainable Development
Although "Red-Green" parties in the Nordic region, such as the Socialist Left Party of Norway, began to embrace the "New Left" political agenda as early as the 1960s and 70s—incorporating environmental protection and feminism into traditional left-wing political programs—most European radical left parties only turned their focus to green and sustainable development issues in the 1990s. The motivation for the "green turn" of European radical left parties stemmed, on the one hand, from the successful "politicization" of green issues during this period, which became a major policy area in party competition and domestic political agendas in Western countries, with the international community and national governments also actively responding to global climate and ecological issues. On the other hand, in addition to the potential electoral threat posed by European Green parties, Western European Communist parties generally faced the important task of renewing their political programs and undergoing party transformation after the end of the Cold War. Absorbing "new political" issues and theoretical discourses such as environmentalism and feminism to reshape their left-wing image became a practical choice for many radical left parties. For example, the Socialist Party of the Netherlands declared in its 1999 basic program its commitment to establishing a sustainable society; at its 33rd Congress in 2004, the Communist Party of Austria repositioned its party identity and pointed out that socialism requires the "greening" of the economy; the Left-Green Movement (VG) of Iceland, founded in 1999, positioned its party goal as striving for equality, justice, women's liberation, environmental protection, and world peace; the Red-Green Alliance (Ø) of Denmark, founded in 1989, aims to combine the politics of social change with the politics of solving major environmental problems at both national and international levels.
European radical left parties view the ecological crisis as an important manifestation of the "total crisis" of capitalism, believing that it is the capitalist system itself that has led to the imbalance in the relationship between humans and nature and within the global ecosystem. Climate and environmental issues and ecological disasters are "the direct consequence of the pursuit of capital valorization and profit maximization under capitalist relations of production." The development of capitalism is rooted in market rationality; driven by the logic of profit maximization, all things are commodified, and corporate production disregards ecological and social consequences, shifting environmental costs onto the public. In the view of European radical left parties, humanity consumes the earth's rare and non-renewable resources in the name of progress, only to serve the interests of a few; unsustainable modes of productionism and consumerism are destroying the foundation of the co-existence of humans and nature. "Solving environmental problems and fighting global poverty are the greatest challenges of our time. Without ecological sustainability, a just world is impossible."
European radical left parties call for the search for alternatives to current development models, redefining the ways of production, consumption, and trade that the public is concerned about, shifting profit-oriented growth to sustainable development, and using democratic, social, and ecological forces to overcome the dominance of capital. In the long run, socialism requires the correct handling of the relationship between human needs and nature to achieve harmonious co-existence between the two. This means that economic development must conform to ecological and sustainable development principles and cannot ignore individual health, education, morality, and cultural development; it must consider the environmental, cultural, and social significance of economic development, and resources should be used "better" rather than "more." European radical left parties are committed to fundamentally changing people's modes of production and life to achieve environmental and social justice through socio-ecological transformation and by incorporating more environmental considerations into political decision-making. Regarding specific environmental demands, European radical left parties advocate for protecting biodiversity, developing "GMO-free" agriculture, opposing the privatization of public transport and water resources, encouraging rail and other public transport, advocating for the vigorous development of renewable energy, strengthening subsidies for eco-friendly cars, public transport, and renewable energy, and phasing out nuclear power. It is worth noting that, compared to other parties, the green initiatives of European radical left parties have more social-dimensional concerns. For example, the Swiss Party of Labour (PST-POP) and the United Left of Spain both emphasize that access to water and healthy food is a basic human right, and that the ownership and public management of strategic natural resources are crucial to prevent the commodification of water, energy, air, and soil, and to achieve democratic and socialized control over energy production and distribution processes, ending energy sector oligopolies to serve society.
5. Peace and Internationalism
Internationalism was once a vital principle for Communist Parties. According to the vision of Marx and Engels, communism and socialism could only be realized on a global scale; thus, they called for the "proletarians of all countries to unite." European radical left parties have inherited this internationalist pursuit of value, dedicating themselves to promoting global peace and disarmament, transforming the unequal world economic order, fostering fair international cooperation and trade, and eliminating all forms of oppression and exploitation worldwide. For example, the Communist Party of Greece (KKE) notes that "from its inception, the KKE has remained loyal to the principles of proletarian internationalism, defending socialist construction in the Soviet Union, Europe, Asia, and Cuba," and "standing in solidarity with the struggles of the world working class, fighting for peoples striving for national liberation and socialism." The Communist Party of Austria (KPÖ) also emphasizes that "internationalism is a core of communist politics," and that "although overcoming the capitalist system requires the basic framework of social and political struggle within the nation-state, it also requires international trade unions and left-wing forces." The Portuguese Communist Party (PCP) similarly positions itself as a patriotic and internationalist party, a party in solidarity with other Communist parties and revolutionary progressive forces worldwide, believing it crucial to strengthen and develop the operational capacity of the international communist and revolutionary movements.
In the view of European radical left parties, peace is a prerequisite for all human development. Consequently, they oppose all forms of imperialism and war, militarism, military conflicts at the national or regional level, arms races, and weapons of mass destruction. They oppose the participation of their national militaries in any war, advocate for peace and disarmament, support bans on arms exports, and simultaneously hope to dissolve NATO and other military alliances to promote the process of global disarmament and reconstruct the international economic order. Building a peaceful, sharing, and solidary world without weapons is the political vision of European radical left parties. These parties call for full respect for international law and human rights, the maintenance of world peace and international security based on the fundamental principles of the United Nations, the strengthening of international solidarity and civil rights, the promotion of economic development, an end to the economic exploitation of the Third World, and the provision of a decent life for everyone through the equal sharing of world resources.
European radical left parties point out that the currently dominant process of capitalist globalization clearly possesses imperialist characteristics, occurring at the expense of the interests of the majority. To establish a more democratic, peaceful, and solidary world, power and resources must be redistributed globally; that is, global economic power relations must be adjusted in favor of poor countries, which is also an important task facing European radical left parties. "To have a just and peaceful world, a radical redistribution of power and resources is needed." These parties take global resistance against the neoliberal order and the capitalist system as a major objective, calling for the global workers' movement to unite with European left-wing movements and progressive forces. They seek to strengthen exchange and cooperation with Latin America, the Mediterranean region, the African continent, and the BRIC countries [8] to provide an alternative to neoliberal capitalist hegemony. "In the current struggle for European economic, social, and political integration, an internationalist dimension must be incorporated so that popular elements on the European continent can synchronize with progressive forces of solidarity around the world." Based on the cognitive value and consensus of a community with a shared future for humanity, European radical left parties call for strengthening international left-wing solidarity and cooperation to jointly build a fairer, more solidary, and more democratic world. Regarding specific policy demands, they call for the global universalization of basic rights for workers' labor and lives and the right to collective bargaining; full cooperation on global climate issues to avoid ecological disaster through responsible global efforts and achieve global justice and sustainable development; the global taxation of speculative capital transfers to prevent tax evasion policies by the wealthy; and the construction of a fairer, more effective, and more supportive global economic and financial system. They also advocate for guaranteeing the legal rights of immigrants and the right of asylum for refugees to prevent xenophobia and racism.
IV. Conclusion
Equality and social justice, democracy, freedom and solidarity, sustainable development, and peace and internationalism constitute the political concepts and value pursuits of most European radical left parties. These basic political creeds and values serve as the important foundation for the governing programs and political appeals of parties in various countries. The ideology of European radical left parties is a radicalization of mainstream political concepts; it criticizes the capitalist system more clearly and thoroughly than the center-left Social Democratic parties. Whether they are Communist parties or democratic left parties, they position themselves in fundamental opposition to capitalism, neoliberalism, and imperialism. They believe that it is precisely the capitalist system that has caused unprecedented economic, financial, ecological, civilizational, and social crises, as well as wars, the exploitation of workers, and the oppression of women. Consequently, they have launched comprehensive, systematic, and sharp critiques of the capitalist system. European radical left parties hope to achieve socialism and social equality through structural socio-ecological transformation, collective ownership, and the redistribution of social wealth, constructing a democratic, social, ecological, and peaceful socialist society.
Overall, European radical left parties exhibit common "party family" characteristics. Their key identity markers and relatively consistent value concepts distinguish them from other parties, such as the center-left Social Democrats and the center-right Conservatives. Of course, it must be noted that this conceptual commonality is also constrained by specific national contexts. In fact, European radical left parties across different countries exhibit significant differences in discourse systems, party goals, methods of struggle, alliance strategies, and policy demands. The ideology of European radical left parties reflects contradictions and tensions between consistency and heterogeneity, stability and innovation, and ideals and reality. On one hand, they share a common anti-capitalist political identity; on the other, their ideologies manifest diversity, with some believing in Marxism while others appeal to democratic socialism or eco-socialism. Meanwhile, while these parties possess a relatively stable and continuous radical left political identity, they also adjust and innovate their ideologies according to changes in the conditions of the times to maintain flexibility and adaptability. This includes the absorption of "New Politics" such as environmentalism and feminism; thus, their political programs reflect a blend of "Old Politics" and "New Politics" to varying degrees. European radical left parties also face the contradiction between ideal and reality—namely, how to achieve a transcendence of the capitalist constitutional order from within the capitalist system. Some parties, particularly Communist parties, position themselves as anti-systemic parties and generally face the task of systemic integration, requiring them to prudently handle the "ideological paradox of the party." The KKE and the PCP have consistently maintained a distinctive ideology, defending the firmness and purity of communist ideology and adhering to traditional revolutionary political discourse while making few compromises to realism. In contrast, the ideologies of parties like the Left Bloc (BE) in Portugal, SYRIZA in Greece, the Left Alliance in Finland, and the Left Party in Sweden are more moderate. They have gradually embraced "New Politics" issues, established a more flexible "New Left" party image, and maintained pragmatism at an invisible level.
Although in the current volatile situation filled with uncertainty and risk, European radical right parties—whose primary political appeals are anti-immigrant, anti-EU, and racist—are more clearly the harvesters of mobile voters and protest voters dissatisfied with mainstream politics, European radical left parties still possess the space and potential to mobilize their core constituencies under increasingly radicalized and unequal socio-economic and political circumstances. The political ideology and values of European radical left parties not only serve as important guides and basic tenets for their specific programs and policies but also significantly influence the feasibility and possibility of party alliances and transnational cooperation. Influenced by factors such as historical origins and political culture, the Communist parties of some European countries refuse to cooperate or form alliances with domestic parties that have "New Left" tendencies, and they also refuse to join the "Party of the European Left" at the European level. Furthermore, the historical origins and even historical entanglements between European radical left parties and Social Democratic parties also affect their mutual alliances and cooperation, as seen with the Left Party (Die Linke) in Germany. Additionally, many radical left parties that are increasingly "social-democratizing" and "de-radicalizing," especially the "Green Left" parties in the Nordic region, have better achieved systemic integration and political cooperation due to their conceptual commonalities with left-wing parties like the Social Democrats and the Greens. However, they also face the risk of being "tamed" by power and having their images blurred.