Chen Lan and Jin Chengwei: A Review of Chinese Studies in Spanish-speaking Countries in 2021
On July 1, 2021, General Secretary Xi Jinping solemnly declared: "Through the continued struggles of the whole Party and the entire nation of all ethnic groups, we have realized the First Centenary Goal of building a moderately prosperous society in all respects on Chinese soil. We have brought about a historic resolution to the problem of absolute poverty and are now marching in high spirits toward the Second Centenary Goal of building a great modern socialist country in all respects." This sparked heated discussions across various sectors of Latin American countries and Spanish society regarding the major achievements and historical experience of the Communist Party of China’s (CPC) century of struggle. In the field of academic research, a large volume of scholarship on China has emerged. In addition to traditional Sinology and bilateral economic and trade relations, which have long received significant attention, research on China's domestic and foreign policies has been increasing day by day. This indicates that Spanish-speaking scholars are currently more inclined to explore the institutional, ideological, and strategic factors behind the Chinese economic miracle, as well as the opportunities and challenges brought by the reforms to the international order promoted by China. Based on first-hand Spanish-language literature, this article summarizes the hot topics and mainstream perspectives in China studies within Spanish-speaking countries in 2021. This was achieved by organizing and analyzing commentary articles published by China scholars in mainstream Spanish-language media, China research reports released by think tanks in Latin American countries and Spain, and academic papers and monographs on China-related topics collected in the Ibero-American Network of Books and Journals (REDIB), striving to outline the trajectory of China studies among Spanish-speaking scholars.
I. Hot Topics and Main Perspectives of China Studies in Spanish-Speaking Countries
In 2021, the subjects of concern in China studies within Spanish-speaking countries were relatively diverse. Viewed as a whole, research was concentrated on themes such as Xi Jinping Thought on Socialism with Chinese Characteristics for a New Era, the major achievements and historical experience of the CPC's century of struggle, China's global strategy, and China's experience in pandemic prevention and control.
(1) Research on Xi Jinping Thought on Socialism with Chinese Characteristics for a New Era
Many Spanish-speaking scholars used expressions such as "the third leap" and "the third historical stage" to summarize the New Era of China initiated by Xi Jinping. José Luis Robaina, a former Cuban diplomat to China, believes that the Xi Jinping era is the third leap China has achieved following the Mao Zedong era and the Deng Xiaoping era. Not coincidentally, Xulio Ríos, Director of the Spanish Observatory of Chinese Politics (Observatorio de la Política China), and Jorge Malena, Director of the Chinese Studies Department at the University of the Savior (USAL) in Argentina, also divided the history of the New China into three periods. They believe that the first stage of New China's history was opened by Mao Zedong, who led the socialist revolution and construction; the second stage was opened by Deng Xiaoping, who initiated the new period of reform, opening up, and socialist modernization, guiding China's first steps toward becoming an economic power; the third stage was opened by Xi Jinping, who has combated corruption, stimulated domestic consumption, led technological innovation, and guided China's development into a major power with significant international influence.
Some Spanish-speaking scholars have paid close attention to how Xi Jinping Thought on Socialism with Chinese Characteristics for a New Era inherits and develops the best of traditional Chinese culture. Ruvislei González Saez, Head of the Asia and Oceania Division of the International Policy Research Center (CIPI) in Cuba, believes that the proposal to "remain true to our original aspiration" [1] is closely related to the desire to redefine Chinese identity. After a century of introducing Marxism-Leninism to seek modernization, the CPC leadership believes there is a need to re-protect its traditions, culture, philosophy, customs, and the values that have established Chinese identity over centuries. Ríos, meanwhile, highly values China's integration and balance of Eastern and Western cultures—noting that Xi Jinping Thought on Socialism with Chinese Characteristics for a New Era deeply taps into the essence of the best of traditional Chinese culture and highlights the importance of the Chinese national element. However, the initiative to "remain true to our original aspiration" has not fallen into the trap of narrow, isolated, or conservative nationalism; it emphasizes the importance of classical thought and reaffirms Marxism and Mao Zedong Thought while incorporating dominant concepts from Western theory. To a certain extent, Xi Jinping Thought on Socialism with Chinese Characteristics for a New Era reflects a Chinese-path interpretation through the fusion of historical tradition and contemporary ideology, thereby achieving better results.
(2) Research on the Major Achievements and Historical Experience of the CPC's Century of Struggle
In 2021, the Communist Party of China celebrated its centenary. Mainstream Latin American newspapers, such as Cuba's Granma, Argentina's Tiempo Argentino, and Chile's La Tercera, planned and published special articles on the glorious century-long journey of the CPC. Spanish-speaking think tanks and scholars dedicated to China studies published a large number of commentary articles and monographs on related themes. More influential and representative works include: the book The Metamorphosis of Communism in China: A History of the CPC 1921–2021 (La Metamorfosis del Comunismo en China. Una Historia del PCCh: 1921-2021) by Ríos, as well as his article series "The CPC: A Century of Constant Adaptation" and "The Century of the CPC"; the book The Centenary of the CPC 1921–2021 (El Centenario del PCCh 1921-2021) published by the Venezuelan Association of Chinese Studies (AVECH) at the University of the Andes; the article "The Century-long Great Cause of China" published by the International Policy Research Center of the Cuban Ministry of Foreign Affairs; the book China: Democracy, Political Representation, and Social Legitimacy—A Balance 100 Years after the Foundation of the CPC (China: Democracia, Representación Política y Legitimidad Social. Balance a 100 años de la Fundación del PCCh) edited by Juan Cruz Campagna, a scholar in the Department of International Studies at the Congress University (UC) in Argentina; and the book Opening the Future with History as a Mirror: A Century of the Communist Party of China (La Apertura del Futuro con la Historia como Espejo. Un Siglo del Partido Comunista de China) edited by Marcelo Fabián Rodríguez, a member of the Political Bureau of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Argentina and editor-in-chief of the Argentine journal Marxist Studies.
Ríos summarized that the CPC is the "sum of a series of additions." Throughout its history, the Party has never abandoned its original aspiration. He believes that the history of the CPC is, to a large extent, the history of China over the past century. Without studying the history of the CPC, it is impossible to recognize or understand today's China. Adrián Foncillas, a China-based correspondent for El Periódico de Catalunya who focuses on reporting China issues, believes that the CPC's century-long history exceeds the general perception of Westerners. In the eyes of these people, it seemed difficult for Marxism, which originated in Germany, to take root in the agrarian soil of China. However, over the past century, the CPC has withstood various major challenges, grown increasingly strong through long-term arduous struggle, and remains full of vitality today. Felix Valdivieso, Director of the IE China Center at IE University in Spain, likened the history of the CPC to an epic, believing that under the Party's leadership, China has become a brand-new country and completed a self-reinvention. Gustavo Ng, editor-in-chief of the Argentine magazine DangDai and a researcher at Congress University, believes that the CPC's most important governing foundation is the reunification of the Chinese people, surmounting the long-duration crisis [2] that began in the mid-19th century and leading China's development into a power respected by the international community. Over the past century, the CPC has led three struggles for liberation: through anti-imperialist struggle, it liberated the Chinese people from European powers and Japan, enhancing the national pride of the Chinese people; through land reform, it liberated the Chinese people from feudal forces; and today, liberating the Chinese people from poverty is the third liberation led by the CPC.
In his speech at the ceremony marking the centenary of the CPC, Xi Jinping mentioned: "The era in which the Chinese nation was left to the tender mercies of others and suffered all kinds of bullying is gone forever." This sentence resonated strongly in Latin American countries that had long suffered from colonization. Some scholars in Spanish-speaking countries conducted comparative studies between China and the West. Juan Cruz Campagna, a scholar in the Department of International Studies at Argentina's Congress University, emphasized that China is the only country to become a world power without resorting to aggression, colonization, or launching foreign wars. Rubén Darío Guzzetti, Director of the Argentine Institute of Geopolitics (IADEG), pointed out that while the great Western powers are plunged into chaos, China is like a "pure tone amidst the noise" [3], showing hope and beauty to the world. In the current international situation, anti-human behavior primarily involving developed countries stands in sharp contrast to the great achievements obtained by China under the leadership of the CPC. María Francesca Staiano, Director of the Center for Chinese Studies at the Institute of International Relations of the National University of La Plata (UNLP) in Argentina, also analyzed the sharp contrast between China's reality and the Western world. She pointed out that the CPC keeps in mind the suffering the Chinese people once experienced, working, learning, and progressing incessantly to achieve lofty goals and common values universally recognized by the international community—equality, poverty elimination, the improvement of social rights, a moderately prosperous country, environmental protection, social accessibility, and mobility. Conversely, today’s West is obsessed with unipolar or bipolar static systems and a pathological understanding of neoliberalism, excessive accumulation of wealth, financialization of wealth, labor exploitation, and chronic unemployment. These are used to explain the problems facing domestic and international politics in Western countries, including the enslavement of citizens by ordoliberal forces, citizens becoming mere consumers or political bystanders, "puppet democracy," and the lack of any momentum for reform due to ideological suffocation.
While fully affirming the brilliant achievements of the CPC’s centenary, many Spanish-speaking scholars also sought to analyze the experience behind the Party’s success. Their views can be summarized as follows:
First, the CPC has continuously promoted the Sinicization of Marxism, conducting theoretical innovation on the basis of maintaining ideological continuity. Given that politics in Latin American countries often fall into "pendulum-style" fluctuations, Latin American scholars highly value China's ideological continuity. Patricio Giusto, Executive Director of the Argentine Observatory of Sino-Argentine Strategic Cooperation, proposed that Mao Zedong Thought, Deng Xiaoping Theory, and Xi Jinping Thought on Socialism with Chinese Characteristics for a New Era are all results of CPC leaders making continuous progress through their own contributions and experience while faithfully defending the heritage received from their predecessors. Ríos likened the century the CPC has traversed to a clear, continuous line, through which the ideals of the Chinese nation reside, providing the main driving force for China's development. Raúl Ramírez, Professor of Contemporary History at King Juan Carlos University in Spain, emphasized that the CPC strives to constantly adapt Marxism to China’s national conditions, promoting the Sinicization of Marxism to make Marxist theory fit the Chinese context. Saez also highly affirmed the theory of socialism with Chinese characteristics based on Marxism.
Second, the Communist Party of China (CPC) possesses a strong capacity for adaptation. In the 1960s, when Spanish-speaking scholars studied Mao Zedong Thought, they attempted to explore its origins through the lens of "utopianism." Romer Cornejo, a professor of contemporary Chinese history at the Center for Asian and African Studies at El Colegio de México, noted in his article "China's Utopias and Their Frontiers" that the CPC absorbed Marxist concepts regarding a communist utopia. However, history has proven that it is precisely the pragmatism and adaptability of the CPC that transformed the "utopia," once doubted by Latin American scholars, into reality. As Ramírez noted, the CPC has evolved into a managerial party centered on the well-being of the people, rather than an ideological party possessed only of utopian ideals. Sesé believes that throughout its centennial history, the CPC has consistently adapted to the historical reality of every moment, knowing how to undertake necessary transitions and adjust its direction in a timely manner. This requires both a change in mindset and the implementation of concrete actions. In this process, Chinese Communists have faced immense challenges but have remained committed to moving toward medium- and long-term visionary goals. This reflects the strategic focus of the CPC leadership and demonstrates their confidence in embracing opportunities without fear of challenges or contradictions. The CPC repeatedly emphasizes that no country's socio-economic development model should remain static; instead, it must be adjusted according to the actual conditions of its specific historical moment. Consequently, by formulating and implementing a series of policies, the CPC has firmly developed the productive forces, promoted the establishment of a modern industrial system, and optimized the economic model. Focusing on the contemporary era, Ríos argues that today, a century after its founding, the CPC continues to drive major transformations: on one hand, influenced by introspective thinking, it has reintegrated the spirit of the rule of law into political life, promoting the continuous renewal and perfection of institutions; on the other hand, it highlights the importance of Marxist ideology, emphasizing the Party's original aspiration and founding mission.
Third, the CPC possesses a meritocratic selection system with rigorous standards. The CPC has drawn upon the essence of the ancient imperial examination system [4] to promote the formation of an elite civil service system that meets the requirements of the era. Ramírez speaks highly of China's civil service system. He points out that China is not an aristocracy but has established a system of examinations to recruit the most capable individuals through competitive testing. Campagna, meanwhile, believes that the criteria for CPC membership comprise a set of selection standards that are perhaps the most demanding in the world. The "ladder" for the promotion of Party leaders is equally rigorous, requiring extensive management experience, participation in a series of training programs, and strong personal capabilities—including both theoretical proficiency and practical experience, as well as a powerful capacity for adaptation and response. Giusto emphasizes that in China, the people place great value on performance and collective effort, a concept that is difficult for Westerners to grasp. When mission objectives are not completed within the designated timeframe, the responsible officials are punished; conversely, officials with outstanding performance often stand out and are appointed to important positions. Isidre Ambrós, a former correspondent in China for the Spanish newspaper La Vanguardia, concluded from his observations that in the New Era, as Chinese youth witness their country's rising global influence, they develop a strong sense of national pride and more actively seek to join the CPC—the political group that has made the nation great.
Fourth, the CPC possesses exceptionally high governance efficiency. Giusto believes that the CPC's methodical formulation of rigorous Five-Year Plans—which include feasible concrete goals and highly detailed deadlines, and are generally strictly executed—serves as the fundamental guarantee for the CPC's governance efficiency. Ríos posits that since the 18th CPC National Congress, the CPC has further strengthened Party leadership over all fields, particularly the economy. Taking digital governance as an example, the CPC has penalized abuses of power and corrupt behavior by companies that monopolize the market and control user data, achieving positive results. Corporate monopoly is a common problem faced by governments worldwide; some Western governments have also attempted to address it—for instance, both the US and the EU have shown a willingness to penalize giants like Google, Amazon, and Facebook—but none have succeeded. In contrast, China has once again demonstrated its superior governance efficiency.
Fifth, the CPC implements development-oriented social cohesion policies, constructing an invisible but solid triangular relationship between the Party, the State, and the People. Sesé argues that although not all Chinese people are CPC members, the CPC is the dominant force in Chinese society, capable of integrating society at both the economic and cultural levels. With the exception of hostile and subversive elements, "uniting all forces that can be united" is a glorious tradition of the CPC. The Party is not merely the formulator of national policy, but more importantly, the backbone that maintains social solidarity—the leading force that unites all possible domestic and foreign forces to strive for the construction of a great socialist China. Tang Menglong [5] believes it is precisely the power inherent in traditional Chinese culture that enables the CPC to continuously harmonize the interests of various parties, combining market interests with public interests and transforming them into a centripetal force that accelerates the pace of development. This social policy of combining public and individual interests is, in turn, coordinated with long-term national plans and goals, enabling the country to move forward in a single direction.
(3) Research on China’s Experience in Fighting the Pandemic In 2021, Latin American scholars paid greater attention to and affirmed China's performance in pandemic prevention and control. As Rodríguez stated, when the world fell into the public health crisis of the COVID-19 pandemic, it was precisely the moment when socialist values were fully manifested. China's outstanding anti-pandemic work made it a model of rapid response, powerful organization, and solidarity. The results China achieved in the anti-pandemic struggle, as well as its care and concern for the masses, demonstrated humanitarian spirit and socialist values to the entire world.
Many Spanish-speaking scholars believe that after the outbreak, China aided many developing countries with vaccines, which fully reflected China's sense of responsibility and further consolidated and expanded its international influence. Carla Oliva, a professor at the Center for International Political and Economic Studies at the National University of Rosario in Argentina and coordinator of the Argentina-China Research Group, stated that China is one of the few countries in the world with advanced laboratory standards, and its vaccine aid fully demonstrated China's scientific research capabilities in the field of biomedical technology. China thus successfully expanded its influence over countries that were outside the scope of US and European aid. When Mexican President López Obrador sought vaccine support from the US government to promote health, stability, and security in North America, the US refused to share vaccines with Mexico or other neighbors. However, when Mexico turned to the Chinese government for help, China responded quickly and delivered the vaccines in a timely manner. Meanwhile, as the arrival of unaccompanied Mexican minors at the US border brought the migration crisis to a new high, the US was forced to approve the shipment of AstraZeneca vaccines to Mexico. Furthermore, China donated medical equipment, cash, and vaccines to countries such as the Dominican Republic and El Salvador, which contributed to the identification of China as a "responsible actor" among Latin American nations. Daniel Lemus-Delgado, a professor at the Monterrey Institute of Technology in Mexico, analyzed that while the outbreak of the pandemic pushed China's foreign policy in a more proactive and enterprising direction, China's vaccine aid was not intended for world hegemony. Currently, China's foreign policy has a broader dimension, focusing more on consolidating the vision of the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation.
(4) Research on Sino-US Relations and the International Landscape Changes in Sino-US relations and the international landscape are undoubtedly a focus of global attention today and have been extensively studied by Spanish-speaking scholars. Scholars in Spanish-speaking countries generally believe that China and the US have entered an era of comprehensive strategic competition. Overall, they see the US and China as the primary participants in today's global geostrategy, possessing the strongest comprehensive national strength and the ability to exercise power beyond their borders and change the geopolitical status quo; therefore, the trajectory of Sino-US relations will directly influence the direction of change in the international order.
Some scholars explain the reconstruction of the international landscape from the perspectives of culture and institutions. For example, Carlos Rafael Britto Londoño, a professor at the Superior War College in Colombia, stated that unlike in the past, the current transformation of the international system is a manifestation of a "civilizational crisis" encountered by the Western path. Fabián Bosoer, a professor at the National University of Tres de Febrero in Argentina, believes that following the "third wave" of democratization defined by Huntington (1974–1990) and the "fourth wave" marked by social mobilization for rights (the first two decades of the 21st century), many indicators show that Western democracy has entered a cycle of regression or recession. This trend is reflected not only in mature democracies but also affects emerging countries with newly established democratic systems. The liberal-led international order is falling into an irreversible and profound crisis. China has become a force seeking to reshape the world. China's positioning as a world power is reflected not only in economic and geopolitical terms but also in ideology, soft power, and culture.
Scholars are not unanimous regarding the extent to which China can play a role in the reconstruction of the international landscape. Eugenio Anguiano Roch, a Mexican expert on China and former ambassador to China, proposed from a geopolitical perspective that the global landscape is being reorganized under the respective impetuses of China and the US. In addition to wanting to regain influence in Latin America, East Asia, Southeast Asia, and Africa, the US will also strengthen its leadership of NATO. China, based on the Shanghai Cooperation Organization, has the potential to strengthen ties with Russia and Central Asian countries. If these centripetal forces are consolidated, the world economic and political order will enter a new bipolar era. Pablo Pareja Alcaraz, a professor at Pompeu Fabra University in Spain, holds a different view, arguing that due to uncertain factors, future development trends remain unclear. He pointed out that it is too early to draw conclusions about the evolutionary trend of the liberal international order. Like other international actors, China is sailing in this sea of uncertainty. However, unlike many countries, China must decide whether it wants to take the helm or, conversely, prefers to delay this decision until a future moment when more favorable winds blow.
Despite disagreements in judgment regarding certain aspects, many scholars believe that the competition and friction between China and the US will be difficult to end in the short term. As Osvaldo Rosales, Director of the Division of International Trade and Integration of the UN Economic Commission for Latin America (ECLAC), stated, Biden's industrial policy legislation is comparable to a "moon landing" and has been called the "China Project" by US media, representing the largest investment in US history in decades. It will try by every possible means to block China's progress in high-tech fields such as 5G networks, artificial intelligence, and robotics. China has responded by "constructing a new development pattern in which domestic circulation is the mainstay and domestic and international dual circulation promote each other," further emphasizing domestic innovative development. Mariano Treacy, a professor at the National University of General Sarmiento in Argentina, believes that Five-Year Plans are long-term plans with coherence and continuity led by the CPC; China will continue to maintain policy stability as always, persist in a pragmatic economic policy of opening up, and play an increasingly large role on the international stage.
Faced with the new situation of changing Sino-US relations and the reconstruction of the international landscape, some scholars see more opportunities brought by China to developing countries. Sesé believes that the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank (AIIB) created by China differs from traditional international financial institutions such as the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund, providing a new option for constructing a new type of financial relationship. The "China solution" differs from the traditional financial and economic policies implemented by major Western powers, focusing on cooperation for shared advantages, which will benefit all parties. Javier Vadell, a professor of international relations at the Pontifical Catholic University of Minas Gerais in Brazil, also believes that for an increasing number of developing countries, China has become their largest trading partner, debt holder, and investor. China can become an unprecedented, long-term, and inclusive strategic development partner for the Latin American and Caribbean regions.
II. Characteristics and Analysis of the Causes of China Studies in Spanish-speaking Countries
As demonstrated by the review of research topics and perspectives among Hispanophone scholars in 2021, these scholars generally maintain a relatively positive attitude toward China's governing philosophy and policy practices. They exhibit great interest and enthusiasm for the Chinese path and the Chinese solution. This research characteristic is especially evident among left-wing progressive scholars in Latin America. The reasons for this can be analyzed through the following aspects.
(1) Certain Spanish-speaking countries have fallen into crises of democratic politics Prior to the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic, several Latin American countries had already experienced large-scale social unrest and a deteriorating political ecosystem. Following the outbreak, the combined effects of the "changes unseen in a century" [6] and the global pandemic exerted a comprehensive impact on Latin American nations. The democratic systems in these countries lack the capacity to resolve political and social difficulties, leading to party fragmentation, vicious competition, and high polarization in parliaments, making it difficult to reach a consensus for implementing national governance policies. Consequently, public dissatisfaction with current democratic systems has increased, and a crisis of mistrust has spread. According to the 2021 Latinobarómetro survey, only 25% of Latin Americans are satisfied with their current democratic systems. From 2010 to 2020, the proportion of people supporting current democratic systems decreased by 14 percentage points. Specifically, 60% of Argentine citizens believe their national democratic system has major problems; this statistic also exceeds 50% in countries such as Peru, Ecuador, Chile, and Colombia. It can be said that Latin America has become one of the regions where the public is most dissatisfied with current democratic systems. Therefore, Latin American scholars have begun to explore the possibilities of "non-Western paths." They urgently need to study the successful experience of the Communist Party of China's (CPC) governance to find the "key" to the Chinese system and path, reflecting on the crisis facing Western representative democracy and seeking solutions to contemporary crises.
(2) Hispanophone left-wing scholars have long engaged in deep reflection on alternatives to the international order Socialist thought has a long history in Latin America and is one of the region's primary political trends, exerting a radiating influence on other Spanish-speaking countries. Latin American countries have long suffered from unequal distribution of wealth and income, leading to acute social contradictions. As a value concept and policy choice, the social justice advocated by socialism has a strong appeal to the broad lower and middle social strata and possesses a deep social foundation in Latin America. For Latin American socialists and Marxists—who have long been dedicated to the critique of capitalism—the successful experience of socialist China provides powerful evidence. The Chinese solution has received widespread attention from progressive scholars and the public in Latin America.
Furthermore, Latin American countries have long been subject to intimidation and interference from the United States, deeply affected by the Monroe Doctrine. Latin American scholars developed Dependency Theory and Center-Periphery Theory [7] to profoundly expose the injustice and lack of righteousness in the Western-led international order, seeking theoretical and practical solutions to establish a new international order to replace the "law of the jungle." Consequently, facing China's concept of "a community with a shared future for humanity" and the Belt and Road Initiative, Latin American scholars have responded positively, viewing them as beneficial explorations by Global South countries for new models of international cooperation. As Maria José Haro Sly, currently working at Argentina's Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation, stated, both China and Latin America belong to developing nations or regions, and both seek to find their own voices in the current world system. Currently, international relations theory is fundamentally dominated by the United States, and "vulgar" Western knowledge has become the absolute benchmark for the global academic community. The basic premises provided by this knowledge are based on a Western worldview. Frequently, these concepts are considered ahistorical and universal; dominant countries misappropriate the connotations of concepts like democracy and development, discriminating against and demonizing alternatives that could counter universalist concepts, aiming to justify their privileged positions and interference in the internal affairs of neighboring states. For a long time, developing countries were forced to accept theories proposed by developed Western nations. Now, it is necessary to consider the specific experiences of developing countries, deconstruct and reform the post-Westphalian order, and adopt a new perspective of a future-oriented cosmology to construct a more just and harmonious world. At the practical level, China's growing influence in Latin America is viewed as a positive development trend; China-Latin America cooperation helps mitigate the region's vulnerability to U.S. interference.
(3) Chinese policies resonate with Hispanophone scholars in a comparative perspective At the level of specific policies, China's policy experience has resonated with scholars in Spanish-speaking countries. Hispanophone scholars combine the actual problems faced by their own countries with an analysis of China's methods for solving similar issues, attempting to provide reference-worthy countermeasure suggestions for their homelands. For example, due to the large number of Cuban immigrants living in the United States, Cuban scholars pay close attention to the CPC's policies for uniting overseas Chinese. [Leyde] Rodriguez specially mentioned that the CPC's leadership over the state and society is of great significance in promoting social cohesion among all ethnic groups, including overseas Chinese—a point that provides a model for Cuba, which has a large migrant population overseas. The lack of a mass base is one of the decisive factors restricting the development of Latin American communist parties, whereas the CPC views the relationship between the Party and the masses as "a relationship between fish and water" [8], a point that has attracted the attention and study of Latin American communist parties. Furthermore, because China successfully achieved its goals in the battle against poverty, Chinese social policy has become a focus for Hispanophone scholars. As [Patricio] Giusto stated, the Chinese government formulates social policies focusing on expanding and improving public services, giving all citizens the opportunity to access high-quality public services. In China, it is hard to imagine a private company or organization acting as an intermediary in negotiations between the state and the poor, yet this occurs frequently in many Latin American countries. An article in Argentina's Página/12 titled "China: Ending Extreme Poverty and Promoting Entrepreneurship" sparked heated discussion among Argentine readers. Some drew an analogy between China's current poverty alleviation policies and the Peronist policies implemented between 1945 and 1955, believing the two share certain similarities.
(4) Friends of China have become the backbone of Hispanophone China studies Through a demographic analysis of China studies researchers in Spanish-speaking countries, it can be found that many scholars researching Chinese issues have experience studying or working in China, possess certain Chinese language skills, and have a solid understanding of China's political system. Therefore, they have a high sensitivity to new formulations, new measures, and new changes in the CPC's governance, enabling them to grasp current hot topics and expand into new research fields. A few years ago, China studies in Spanish-speaking countries, particularly in Latin America, still faced many restrictions in terms of institutional development, research resources, and personnel construction. However, in recent years, this situation has improved greatly. An increasing number of Latin American and Spanish scholars have gained opportunities to enter China for field research, academic exchanges, and study. Upon returning to their home countries, they have become the backbone of local China studies, pushing China-focused think tanks toward institutionalization and producing more structured, academic, and standardized research results, with their influence in the academic field continuously expanding. For instance, Andrés Bórquez, coordinator of the China Studies Program at the Institute of International Studies at the University of Chile, holds a PhD in International Politics from Fudan University; Patricio Giusto, executive director of the Sino-Argentine Strategic Cooperation Observatory, earned a Master’s in China Studies from Zhejiang University; and Sergio M. Cesarín, director of the Center for Asia-Pacific and India Studies at the National University of Tres de Febrero in Argentina, earned a Master’s from Peking University. Additionally, several contributors to the book China: Democracy, Political Representation, and Social Legitimacy—A Study of the CPC's Centennial Journey also have experience studying in China. Former ambassadors to China have also become an important force in China studies, such as Fernando Reyes Matta, former Chilean Ambassador to China, who is currently the director of the Center for Latin American Studies on China at Universidad Andrés Bello. After leaving their posts, they have moved into universities and think tanks to write and formulate theories, accept government consultations, conduct media interviews, or give public speeches, becoming experts in "Track 1.5 diplomacy" [9] circles. Driven by them, the "China and the Map of World Power" research group of the Latin American Council of Social Sciences (CLACSO) has regularly released research reports since 2020. In 2021, they released their third report—China and Post-Pandemic Outlooks.
III. Conclusion In summary, many Hispanophone scholars have realized that China's success in economic development and the significant enhancement of its comprehensive national strength are due to its consistent adherence to the path of socialism with Chinese characteristics and the leadership of the CPC. Facing the crisis of Western democratic systems, many Hispanophone scholars have begun to reflect on the various flaws of the capitalist system and explore alternatives to the Western model. However, some Hispanophone scholars, particularly China researchers in Spain, are still confined by Western theoretical methods and democratic values; when viewing Chinese issues, they inevitably suffer from misunderstandings, misjudgments, and even the pity of ignorance. Xulio Ríos once said that the understanding of China in Spanish academic and media circles remains weak, which is the reason for repeated serious errors on fundamental issues. In the future, we should continue to carry out in-depth humanities exchanges in the academic field to help Hispanophone scholars gain a deeper understanding of China’s national conditions at the conceptual and institutional levels. At the same time, we should actively engage in candid dialogue and communication with Hispanophone scholars on issues of their concern to help eliminate misunderstandings about China.