Li Xinfeng: Enlightenments of the Chinese Path to Modernization for African Development

As the world's largest developing country and the continent with the highest concentration of developing countries, China and Africa share common development goals and tasks. Throughout the second half of the 20th century, China and Africa experienced a unique phase of pursuing national independence and exploring paths to development. For a time, the economic development of both sides was at a similar level; in fact, the economic development of a small number of African countries was once superior to that of China. However, when China began implementing reform and opening up at the end of the 1970s and entered the "fast lane" of economic development, African countries remained mired in the turbulence of structural adjustment and democratization. At the beginning of the third decade of the 21st century, while China achieved a comprehensive victory in the battle against poverty ^[1] and completed the building of a moderately prosperous society in all respects—and while the Communist Party of China (CPC) led the people in successfully forging a Chinese-path modernization—the development of African countries has yet to see a fundamental turnaround. Given the global impact of China's developmental achievements, strengthening the sharing of experience in poverty alleviation and development, exploring the significance of Chinese-path modernization for African development, and breaking through the constraints imposed on Africa by Western views and paths of modernization have become pressing themes of the times that African leaders and people of insight must seriously consider.

I. Western Modernization Theory and the Development of Africa and China

It took the developed Western countries nearly 300 years to bring approximately one billion people into modernity, carving out a Western path to modernization. For a long period in the past, the Western model seemed to be the sole model for modernization. "Modernization" appeared synonymous with "Westernization," and the path trodden by Western nations was regarded as the "single track" to modernity. In reality, the Western modernization theory that emerged in the second half of the 20th century was a product of the combination of U.S. Cold War mobilization and academia. It provided a theoretical basis for the United States to contain the expansion of communism and intervene in Third World countries, founded upon a series of fundamental assumptions regarding the nature of global change and the relationship between the United States and that change. Western modernization theory, based on the dichotomy of developed versus underdeveloped and centered on the opposition between tradition and modernity, used Western nations as the benchmark and paradigm. It charted and planned a "standard" path of modernization for non-Western countries, attempting to advocate that the Western capitalist development model was the only correct choice and promoting a "one-size-fits-all" Western modernization.

This modernization theory is essentially a "civilization versus barbarism" binary world schema; that is, Western "civilized" nations have a responsibility to help backward nations escape their "barbaric" state. This "civilizing mission" ^[2] discourse highlights the ideology of Western colonialism and imperialism. In fact, Western modernization theory is not based on universal human experience; it is both ahistorical and unscientific, and thus has been continuously falsified in practice. For over half a century, world development has become increasingly imbalanced, the best evidence being the persistent widening of the gap between developed and underdeveloped nations. Many developing countries have fallen into the trap of economic desolation and political decay by mechanically copying and replicating Western modernization schemes, while the United States—once vaunted as the exemplar of modernization—no longer retains its former glory.

As a developmental concept, once "modernization" was endowed with ideological connotations by the powerful Western world and transformed into a system of knowledge constructed to maintain its own power and status, it acquired the power of life and death over others. In the construction, dominance, and practice of so-called Western modernization theory, Africa—a continent full of vitality—was not only judged by the West as a "continent of tradition and backwardness" but also turned into a "hopeless continent" during the process of Western "modernization." Since Western modernization theory became the dominant school of thought in the 1950s and 60s, many newly independent African countries took their former European metropoles as models to build "modern" societies. They believed that political independence was a reliable guarantee and sufficient prerequisite for accelerating modernization. However, Africa's "modernization" process quickly became a developmental paradox; rather than living better lives, these countries became increasingly impoverished and unstable.

At its root, the historical culture, developmental background, social conditions, cultural concepts, and the general international environment of the vast majority of African countries are diametrically different from those of Western countries. Mechanically copying and replicating the Western modernization model is no different from "cutting the feet to fit the shoes" ^[3]; it can only lead to repeated failures, often resulting in these countries sinking deeper into the mire of "modernization." Conversely, relying on their supposed advantages in race, psychology, institutions, and culture, Western countries blamed Africa's modernization failures on Africa itself, denying that African development is linked to Western colonial plunder and the irrational international political and economic order. In essence, the modernization achieved by Western countries was the result of long-term colonization. This process was accompanied by the mass deaths of indigenous Americans and over a hundred million Africans, as well as the large-scale destruction of resources and the environment. This formed the primitive accumulation of industrial capital, thereby enabling the continuous expansion of capital. The "civilization-barbarism" binary schema and the unilinear view of historical development in Western modernization theory provided a theoretical defense for colonial expansion. It goes without saying that it was precisely the process of Western modernization that caused the current backward state of African countries. The vast number of developing countries, including those in Africa, cannot replicate or copy the Western path of colonial expansion, nor can humanity support the entire world in following a Western-style "modernization" path through the massive resource consumption seen in developed countries.

African academia has never ceased its reflection, introspection, and re-examination of the Western modernization model. In the 1960s, some scholars known as modern revisionists critiqued several key points of modernization, pointing out that "traditional" institutions and attitudes are not necessarily obstacles to achieving modernization; in fact, traditional characteristics may be revitalized and strengthened through modernization, thereby negating the unilinear character of modernization. By the turn of the 1960s and 70s, Dependency Theory appeared in Africa, with Egypt's Samir Amin as one of its founders. He argued that the relationship between the vast number of developing countries and developed countries is one of dependence and exploitation; unless the entire international economic system is studied, the roots of underdevelopment and economic stagnation in the Global South cannot be understood. This theory was a rebuttal and response to Western modernization theory, arguing that underdeveloped countries are in a weak position within the world economic order, possess their own characteristics and structures, and are not merely "primitive versions" of developed countries. The famous African historian Walter Rodney, in his book How Europe Underdeveloped Africa, pointed out that before the spread of international capitalism, the politics and economy of the African continent were continuously developing. However, capitalism hindered Africa's independent development through European colonial invasion; Europe became richer and more developed at Africa's expense. Therefore, to break free from this unequal relationship, the way out lies in delinking from the international political and economic system. Since entering the 21st century, African scholars have placed even greater emphasis on the diversity of modernization, pointing out that modernization should focus on each country's cultural lineage, local practices, and the modern characteristics of non-Western societies. They argue that the Western modernization model is not the only correct option, despite its historical head start and its continued role as a point of reference for many other countries.

The hundred-year struggle of the Communist Party of China demonstrates that modernization is not the patent of a few countries, nor is there only one Western model for the path to modernization. The direction of development should be pluralistic; every developing country can achieve modernization by following its own path. As General Secretary Xi Jinping has pointed out, "There is no fixed model for the path to modernization; the one that fits oneself is the best, and one cannot cut the feet to fit the shoes. The efforts of every country to independently explore a path to modernization that conforms to its own national conditions should be respected." China has forged a path to modernization that truly suits its own national conditions, rather than a reprint or carbon copy of any other country's modernization path. From a theoretical dimension, in terms of modernity or modern values, the Chinese-path modernization is more inclusive and open. It transcends the narrow ideology of "Western-centrism," overcomes the inherent flaws of capitalist modernization, and avoids the unilinear development model from tradition to modernity. It is a path to modernization with Chinese characteristics that has opened a way for late-developing countries to move toward modernity. This is because "modernization" within the Chinese-path modernization is an open developmental concept. It breaks out of the single, narrow, and arbitrary theoretical system constructed by Western countries in its original sense, and it replenishes, enriches, and corrects the connotations, modes of understanding, and methods of interpretation of the concept of "modernization."

At the Fifth Plenary Session of the 19th CPC Central Committee, General Secretary Xi Jinping profoundly expounded on the five basic characteristics of Chinese-path modernization: it is the modernization of a huge population, the modernization of common prosperity for all, the modernization of material and cultural-ethical advancement, the modernization of harmony between humanity and nature, and the modernization of peaceful development. The Chinese-path modernization has shattered the so-called myth of the "Western-centric" model's hegemony in modernization theory and practice. It has subverted the "logic of capital," the "logic of polarization," the "logic of materialism," the "logic of alienation," and the "law of the jungle" where the strong prey on the weak that saturate Western modernization models and capitalist civilization. It truly demonstrates the "logic of the people," the "logic of common prosperity," the "logic of well-rounded and free development of the individual," and the just rule of equality and common progress for all peoples. This is a path to modernization and a new form of human civilization unprecedented in human history. It reflects the trend of human historical development, expands the channels for the vast number of developing countries—including African nations—to move toward modernization, and provides a brand-new choice for those countries and nations in the world that wish to accelerate their development while maintaining their independence.

II. The Tortuous Journey of African Countries Exploring Poverty Alleviation and Modernization Paths

Understanding Africa's poverty situation and its journey of exploring development paths is a fundamental prerequisite for China and Africa to strengthen exchange and mutual learning in this field. Overall, Africa's poverty rate remains high on a global level, due to both internal and external reasons. Africa's exploration of a path to modernization has been tortuous, with limited results. As of the 21st century, Africa's struggle for poverty alleviation and its search for a path of independent development remain full of challenges.

1. The current state and causes of poverty in Africa

Achieving sustainable economic development and social progress, and ultimately eliminating poverty, has always been an important task facing African countries. Sub-Saharan Africa is one of the regions with the most severe impoverishment in the world and a key area where the poor population continues to increase. According to World Bank statistics, as of early 2021, there were still more than 30 African countries with poverty rates exceeding 30%; among the 10 countries with the highest poverty rates globally, Africa accounts for nine. A report by the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa (ECA) pointed out that approximately 90% of the world's extreme poor live in Africa. The COVID-19 pandemic further exacerbated Africa's poverty problem; if the impact of the pandemic could not be controlled by 2021, the total number of people in extreme poverty in Africa would reach 514 million. Furthermore, it is estimated that even under the most optimistic circumstances, by 2030, there will still be more than 300 million people in extreme poverty in Sub-Saharan Africa. Therefore, Africa is the final battlefield in the global struggle against poverty. Whether the world can successfully eliminate poverty will largely depend on the developmental status of Africa.

Africa is rich in natural resources and has a huge latent demographic dividend; why has it become the poorest region in the world? In response, some scholars, starting from physical geographic characteristics, point out that there are mainly three types of countries on the African continent: resource-rich countries, resource-scarce coastal countries, and resource-scarce landlocked countries. In terms of economic growth, the performance of these three types of countries varies greatly. The cause of African poverty is precisely that a large population lives in resource-scarce, landlocked countries that must rely on neighbors to reach the sea. The constraints of physical geography, interacting with human geographic features such as a young population structure and ethnic diversity, have collectively made African poverty alleviation a thorny issue. Other scholars believe that corruption, backward education, political instability, geographic features, and the lack of good governance are the causes of African poverty. Still others emphasize that Africa's poverty is caused by factors such as corruption, poor governance, limited employment opportunities, backward infrastructure, low resource utilization, wars and endless conflicts, and improper policies of the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund.

In summary, the causes of African poverty are multifaceted, originating from both internal and external sources, with external influences being particularly profound. Regarding external factors: First, prolonged colonial aggression and rule constitute the historical root cause of Africa's long-term poverty. From the early 15th century, when Western colonizers landed in Africa, until the 1960s and 70s, when most African countries gained independence, the slave trade and colonial rule kept African nations in a state of mono-cultural economies ^[5] for centuries, destroying the foundational diversity of African development. The 400-year slave trade not only decimated Africa's labor force but also severed the natural evolution of African civilizations, obstructed the historical process of African development, and undermined its historical foundations. Second, the plunder and control of African economies by Western countries have made development arduous and resulted in a lack of national autonomy. Although African nations have been politically independent for decades, they remain economically constrained by Western developed countries; the process of economic independence and decolonization remains a long and difficult task. Due to poverty and backwardness, some African countries have been forced to rely on Western aid. Western countries attach political values as conditions for aid, and through international financial institutions such as the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF), they have long intervened in and controlled the development strategies and economic policies of African nations, making it difficult for these countries to effectively lead their own development. The "lost decade" of Africa caused by the Neoliberal structural adjustment programs in the 1980s is clear evidence of this. Third, although Western countries currently have various cooperation platforms such as the United States–Africa Leaders Summit, the France–Africa Summit, and the AU-EU Equal Partnership, they have not given sufficient attention to the infrastructure, industrialization, and livelihood facilities urgently needed by African countries, and the actual utility for African development remains limited. Finally, the old world order that marginalizes Africa has exacerbated its poverty and underdevelopment, which in turn weakens Africa’s status and discourse power in international politics and economics, forming a vicious cycle.

At the same time, African poverty and underdevelopment also stem from many internal factors, although these are to a large extent closely linked to external root causes. First, most African countries failed to actively implement economic diversification policies and strategies after independence. The long-term existence of a mono-cultural economic development model has made national economies excessively dependent on the international economic system and markets, resulting in prominent economic vulnerability and making it difficult to effectively produce basic goods required for people's livelihoods. Second, although some African nations possess abundant natural resources, excessive reliance on resource industries has replaced diversified economic development, causing the economy to remain stuck in a single mode over the long term. Since resource extraction rights have long been controlled by Western companies, most resource profits flow into the pockets of multinational corporations rather than benefiting the African countries themselves. This creates a vicious cycle where resources exacerbate poverty, and poverty leads to the "resource curse." Third, Western-style democracy built upon a backward economic base has weakened the power of African governments. Some Western scholars even refer to African states as "quasi-states" or "weak states," arguing they are merely "states in a juridical sense" and that their sovereignty is "negative." Such governments naturally find it difficult to effectively organize social resources to develop the economy and escape poverty, while Western-funded indigenous civil society organizations in Africa criticize national leaders and governments in the name of oversight, which to some extent restricts the improvement of government governance capacity. Fourth, long-standing political instability, ethnic conflicts, and border disputes have made it difficult for governments to concentrate energy and resources on development. Meanwhile, the three major bottlenecks of backward infrastructure, lack of talent, and insufficient funding have constrained the economic development and integration process of African countries. Corruption and low levels of education have caused poverty reduction efforts in Africa to stumble.

2. The Tortuous Journey of African Countries in Exploring the Path to Modernization

For a long time, African countries have often been forced by external pressure and unable to independently choose development paths consistent with their own characteristics. Kenyan scholar James Shikwati believes that Africa is living in the dreams of other civilizations; due to the lack of a set of indigenous ideas and values, the African continent is sometimes tossed to the East and sometimes to the West in the vast ocean of geopolitical interests. This is an apt metaphor, and the facts bear it out. In the early 15th century, Western colonial plunder and rule forcibly integrated Africa into the capitalist world system. Consequently, Africa's passive acceptance of Western modernity was directly transformed into a subordinate status of vassalage and dependence on the West, a process that continued until the eve of the independence of African states in the 20th century. Can a country truly forge a path to modernization through passive involvement? The answer is no, because modernization usually signifies the industrialization of a country. As Mao Zedong pointed out: "Without independence, freedom, democracy, and unity, it is impossible to build truly large-scale industry."

In the 1960s and 70s, a large number of independent African countries began the historical journey of state-building. Some chose different forms of socialist systems, intending to break away from Western governance paradigms and seek economic and social development under a brand-new system. However, "Middle Road" or unscientific socialist practices not only failed to bring the expected development to these African countries but instead triggered new contradictions and problems, seriously inhibiting their pace of development. Regarding this, Mao Zedong cautioned African government leaders and personages from all walks of life during meetings that Africa must choose its development path based on its actual conditions. In 1960, during talks with social activists, peace advocates, and delegations of trade unions, youth, and students from 12 African countries and regions, Mao Zedong emphasized: "We welcome everyone to take a look at China's experience. Some experiences might serve as a reference for you, including the experience of revolution and the experience of construction. However, I must remind my friends that China has its own historical conditions, and you have yours. China’s experience can only serve as a reference for you." Deng Xiaoping also suggested that Africa should not be in a hurry to practice socialism; African countries need to consider whether to pursue socialism based on their own conditions and to pursue a socialism that conforms to the actual conditions of each country. The primary task of socialism is to develop the productive forces and improve the material and cultural living standards of the people, yet Africa at that time clearly did not possess the productive forces to truly build socialism. Thus, African socialism ultimately ended in failure.

In the 1980s, based on the macro-environment and strategic requirements of the US-Soviet struggle for Africa, the West—particularly the United States—pushed a series of Neoliberal reform measures in Africa through the World Bank and the IMF, which they dominated. These measures, based on market regulation and the reduction of state intervention, led the African economy into a recessionary plight. The end of the Cold War once again provided the West with a historical opportunity to influence Africa's political systems and development paths. African countries that had followed socialism and one-party politics changed their banners one after another, turning instead to Western-style parliamentary democracy and multi-party systems, and African countries comprehensively embarked on the capitalist path of development. However, even heading into the second decade of the 21st century, although a few African countries achieved positive results, African countries overall have not yet effectively solved the problem of their development path. The autonomy of African development and the process of integration have not seen significant results, and the modernization process of African industry and agriculture remains slow and faces multiple dilemmas. Facing a rapidly developing world and the United Nations' agenda for poverty reduction and sustainable development, the African Union formulated "Agenda 2063" to promote African development. It proposed many beautiful visions, such as "building a prosperous Africa based on inclusive growth and sustainable development." Among these, the two visions of building Africa into "an integrated continent, politically united and based on the ideals of Pan-Africanism and the vision of Africa’s Renaissance" and a "strong, united, resilient, and influential global player and partner" represent a brand-new definition by Africa of its own development path, the core of which is the realization of independent development. On this basis, Africa has the right to choose and form an independent development path that conforms to its own characteristics, the right to reject the interference of external forces in its internal affairs, and the right to draw on successful experiences that contribute to African development.

3. Challenges Facing the Goals of Poverty Reduction and Independent Development in African Countries

Reviewing and looking ahead at the process of African countries exploring poverty reduction and development paths, the journey is full of difficulties and challenges. In recent decades, African countries, especially Sub-Saharan African countries, have attached increasing importance to the issues of poverty reduction and development. From the Structural Adjustment Programs (SAPs) proposed by the World Bank and the IMF in the 1980s to the Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers (PRSPs) in 1999, African countries have always been active participants, yet their poverty reduction and development goals remain unfulfilled. The loans provided to Africa under these strategies "backfired"; instead of helping African countries develop, they led to overall economic failure, increased debt burdens, widening gaps between rich and poor, restricted national autonomy, and frequent social contradictions. Africa remains poor and backward. At the Millennium Summit in 2000, UN member states agreed on eight goals, namely the "Millennium Development Goals" (MDGs), the first of which was to "eradicate extreme poverty and hunger." Africa, as a stronghold of poverty, was naturally a primary focus. To achieve the MDGs, African countries made great efforts and achieved certain results in children's school enrollment and gender equality, but the overall results still fell short of the goals. According to the United Nations' "Millennium Development Goals Report 2015," although Africa’s extreme poverty rate dropped from 57% in 1990 to 41% in 2015—a reduction rate of 28%—by comparison, during the same period, South Asia saw a 66% drop, Southeast Asia an 84% drop, and East Asia a 94% drop. In September 2015, the UN Sustainable Development Summit adopted the "2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development." Based on the principle of "leaving no one behind," this agenda emphasizes a holistic approach to achieving sustainable development for all. Among its 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), the primary goal remains the eradication of poverty, while emphasizing the thorough resolution of development issues in the social, economic, and environmental dimensions in an inclusive manner from 2015 to 2030, shifting toward a path of sustainable development. While implementing the "2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development," African countries are also committed to realizing the vision of building a more prosperous Africa under the AU’s "Agenda 2063." The UN "2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development" and the AU "Agenda 2063" have jointly become the goals pursued by African countries.

Although the vision is beautiful, the task is arduous and the challenges are severe; the economic growth and poverty reduction process in African countries remains very slow. Several urgent issues and challenges must be addressed: how to transform economic growth into opportunities for poverty reduction; how to convert resources into development advantages rather than falling into the "curse" of mono-dependence; how to maintain a moderate balance between population and economic growth so that the former does not offset the latter; how to promote the maturation and stability of political systems to avoid triggering political instability; how to effectively implement counter-terrorism strategies; and how to achieve independent development. These are unavoidable for African countries in reducing poverty and realizing the goals of the "2030 Agenda" and the vision of "Agenda 2063." Reality shows that the realization of poverty reduction and independent development in African countries requires the joint promotion of both internal and external factors. Internal factors are fundamental, while external factors are conditions; external factors work through internal factors. Building on the foundation of solving internal problems, African countries should create favorable external conditions to effectively promote poverty reduction and independent development. As a fellow developing country, China's experience in poverty reduction and modernization can provide an important external reference for Africa.

4. Drawing on China's Development Experience Helps African Countries Break the "Single Option" Bottleneck of Modernization

The Communist Party of China (CPC) has led the Chinese people in successfully charting the path to Chinese-path modernization, creating a new form of human civilization and expanding the channels for developing nations to achieve modernization. This offers African countries a perspective and a trajectory distinct from those of the West. On one hand, it allows African nations to break through the "single-option" trap of modernization, enabling them to recognize the plurality of modernization models and regain confidence following past failures caused by the rote imitation of Western developmental paths. On the other hand, it can force Western powers to alter the influence of their concepts, models, and practices regarding African political and economic development, thereby fostering a virtuous circle of competition and an external cooperative environment beneficial to African development. If this virtuous cycle takes shape, African national governance will transcend the vacillation and hesitation experienced over the past 60 years, break through the "perpetual crossroads," and truly establish political governance and developmental paths suited to Africa. China completed a process of industrialization in just a few decades that took developed countries several centuries, creating the "two miracles" of rapid economic development and long-term social stability. Precisely because of the recognition that Chinese-path modernization holds reference value for African development, a "Look East" ^[10] trend has quietly emerged in Africa, and learning from China’s developmental experience is gradually becoming a consensus.

According to the latest survey data from the research agency Afrobarometer, conducted between 2019 and 2020 among 26,000 citizens in 18 African countries, an increasing number of African nations are becoming interested in China's development model. When asked about the best model for their country's future development, 32% of respondents chose the "United States" due to long-standing value influences; however, 23% chose "China," ranking second, while only 11% chose "former colonial powers" and 11% chose "South Africa." Furthermore, when respondents ranked external influencers on their own countries, China ranked first, with 59% believing China has had a positive influence on their country’s politics and economy to varying degrees—higher than the 58% who viewed the United States’ influence as positive. Some scholars have conducted discourse analysis on mainstream African media reports from 2000 to 2017 to examine the perceptions and attitudes of the African public toward the "China Model." The results show that African media construct the China Model not only as China’s unique developmental experience but also as a model worthy of study and practice by African countries in political and economic fields. The overall positivity of related reports is moderately high, reflecting the recognition and affirmation of the China Model by African states and peoples. Compared to other models, the China Model is more competitive in Africa, as the continent yearns to promote its own economic development and social progress by drawing on China’s example. These surveys and studies demonstrate the interest and appreciation African nations and peoples hold for China's developmental path, underpinned by their own reflections on developmental dilemmas and their new explorations of modernization models.

III. The Inspirations of Chinese-Path Modernization for Africa

Nkolo Foé, a professor at the University of Yaoundé I in Cameroon, stated during a visit to Yan'an ^[11] that the achievements of Yan'an's poverty alleviation efforts demonstrate that the Western path is not the only way to realize modernization; Chinese-path modernization provides a brand-new choice for African development. At the conclusion of a study tour in Yan'an, African ambassadors to China remarked, "Chairman Mao put the peasant’s coarse cotton jacket ^[12] on Marxism; we must put African national dress on the Yan'an Spirit ^[13]." This typically represents the reflections of African intellectuals on Chinese-path modernization based on their own countries' developmental realities.

1. Proceeding from National Conditions to Choose a Suitable Developmental Path

General Secretary Xi Jinping has pointed out: "Our task is to comprehensively build a modern socialist country; naturally, the modernization we build must possess Chinese characteristics and suit Chinese realities." The inspiration this offers African countries exploring modernization is that the design and development of national political systems must proceed from national conditions and from reality. Whether choosing a capitalist or socialist path, development is the foundation and the key to solving all of Africa's problems; meanwhile, independently formulating national development policies and unifying political consensus with the interests of the people are necessary conditions for successful development. Although Chinese-path modernization can serve as a reference for African countries, there is no one-size-fits-all development model in the world; the model that fits a country's national conditions is the best model. African countries do not need to "Look West" or "Look East," but rather "Look Toward Development," adopting an attitude of seeking truth from facts to find a path suited to their own circumstances.

2. Upholding the People-Centered Development Philosophy

Chinese-path modernization is a people-centered modernization. The primary goals and tasks of socialism with Chinese characteristics in the New Era are to continuously meet the people’s aspirations for a better life, the core of which is "serving the people." Serving the people requires adhering to a people-centered approach, and only by achieving common prosperity can the CPC's fundamental principle of serving the people be put into practice. General Secretary Xi Jinping pointed out: "Only through development can the basic rights of the people be guaranteed. Only through development can the people’s ardent aspirations for a better life be satisfied." During the 2021 "African Ambassadors’ Tour of Yan'an," the Zimbabwean Ambassador to China observed: "The close ties the CPC maintains with the masses are the key to its ability to lead the Chinese people toward success, ensuring that national governance serves the people." Some African scholars have even summarized this CPC concept as a "people-centered model," noting that the CPC is a party of the people rather than an elite party. The commitment to serving the people has won the broad support of the Chinese people, representing a full affirmation of the work the Party has continuously performed for the people since its founding 100 years ago. Therefore, African countries—whether ruling or opposition parties—should learn from the CPC's experience in prioritizing the needs and wishes of the people and creating a better political atmosphere for development. Human beings are the subjects of all productive activities. One of the visions of the African Union’s Agenda 2063 is the building of "an Africa whose development is people-driven, relying on the potential of African people, especially its women and youth." This coincides perfectly with the "people-oriented" ^[14] concept in China’s modernization drive. If African leaders and ruling parties can truly serve the people and persist in people-centered thinking, the enthusiasm of the African masses to participate in poverty reduction and development will surely surge, their endogenous momentum will grow strong, and a fundamental guarantee for achieving poverty reduction and development goals will be established.

3. Pursuing a "Win-Win" Development Pattern of Economic Growth and Environmental Protection

As a vital component of Xi Jinping's thought on ecological civilization, the concept that "lucid waters and lush mountains are invaluable assets" ^[15] has become a consensus for the CPC and the whole of Chinese society, with the concept of green development gradually taking deep root in the hearts of the people. China’s ecological modernization transcends the model of "pollute first, treat later" seen in Western modernization processes, exploring instead a modernization path of harmony between humanity and nature, achieving a "win-win" for both economic development and environmental protection. For example, during the poverty alleviation battle in Yan'an, no trade-offs were made between economic growth and environmental protection; instead, a path of green, sustainable development was forged through mechanisms like compensation for returning farmland to forest, ecological benefit compensation, and increasing income through labor-based poverty alleviation, ensuring stable incomes for farmers. Generally speaking, the level of development is often positively correlated with environmental protection. In reality, however, although Africa has not undergone large-scale development, its current environmental and ecological problems are quite prominent—such as severe desertification and soil erosion, shortages of potable and agricultural water, rapid depletion of forest resources, and the wide-reaching impacts of climate change. From a social-environmental perspective, the current era of African development is the 21st century; its external environment dictates that African development must be green and sustainable.

4. Taking Pan-Africanism as Spiritual Guidance and Seeking Independent Development

In summarizing modernization literature, some scholars categorize the analytical approaches of modernization research into two basic types: the first emphasizes patterns of social organization, while the second emphasizes cultural and ideological patterns. The former stresses methods of organization and action, while the latter argues that thoughts and emotions hold the greatest significance. This indicates that modernization should not be viewed as a purely "objective fact" entirely independent of the subjective consciousness of social members, but rather as a product subjectively constructed by relevant social members; in other words, modernization contains a certain "ethos" or "spirit." If the Western path of modernization contains the so-called "spirit of capitalism," then Sinicized Marxism—encompassing Mao Zedong Thought, Deng Xiaoping Theory, the Theory of Three Represents, the Scientific Outlook on Development, and Xi Jinping Thought on Socialism with Chinese Characteristics for a New Era—serves as the spiritual guidance and ideological guarantee for China’s exploration of the modernization path. When visiting Yan'an, African ambassadors highly praised the vital role of the Yan'an Spirit of "self-reliance and hard struggle" in China’s victory over poverty and the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation. They argued that the independence advocated by the Yan'an Spirit is precisely what African countries need; only by reading the Yan'an Spirit can one truly understand the developmental miracles of the CPC and China.

The development of any country cannot for a moment be separated from strong spiritual guidance. "Pan-Africanism"—which gestated and grew during the anti-racist and anti-colonial movements of the early 20th century, centering on the elimination of colonialism, the realization of national self-determination, the promotion of African unity, and the improvement of people's lives—should likewise become the spiritual core for African countries to strive for national independence and realize African unity, autonomous development, and modernization. Pan-Africanism is Africa's precious spiritual wealth; its essence is self-confidence, self-reliance, and self-strengthening, and its goals are unity, development, and revitalization. This is the direction of Africa’s progress and the trend of the times. Built upon Pan-Africanism, the Organization of African Unity and the African Union (established in 1963 and 2002, respectively) both take as their mission the realization of sovereign independence, the unity of the African continent, the promotion of autonomous development, and the process of continental integration. The AU's Agenda 2063 similarly takes Pan-Africanism as its spiritual core, explicitly proposing to build an Africa with "a strong cultural identity, common heritage, values and ethics" and to "continue the ideals of Pan-Africanism."

Pan-Africanism is the patriotism of the African continent. The spirit of Pan-Africanism is interconnected and consistent with the Chinese nation’s spirit of indomitability and self-improvement. Strengthening the exchange and mutual learning between the spirit inherent in the Chinese-path modernization and Pan-Africanism is not only an inherent part of the exchange between Chinese and African civilizations but will also provide new ideas for poverty reduction, common development, and win-win cooperation among developing countries, offering a new paradigm for building a community with a shared future for humanity. David Monyae, Director of the Centre for Africa-China Studies at the University of Johannesburg, has compared China’s concept of "common prosperity" with the traditional African philosophy of "Ubuntu," finding many commonalities: fundamentally, both aim to elevate the status of the poor and protect their distribution and welfare; both support and emphasize the spirit and value of hard work; collectivism and compassion are vital components of both; and both maintain a cautious attitude toward Western free-market systems. Monyae believes that the resonance between China’s common prosperity and African Ubuntu culture provides a common foundation for a stronger China-Africa relationship, offering Africa and the world an opportunity to pivot away from liberal capitalism. The significance of common prosperity for Africa lies in providing a battle-tested new program and experience—supported by the belief in serving the people under conditions of hardship and poverty—to successfully achieve poverty alleviation and move toward sustainable development. This can serve as a reference for Africa’s exploration of modernization, allowing it to derive new contemporary connotations and guiding Africa toward a path of independent development.

5. Persisting in Handling the Relationship Between Reform, Development, and Stability, and Pursuing a Path of Peaceful Development

The relationship between reform, development, and stability has always governed the process of China’s modernization. The success of the path of Chinese-path modernization is closely linked to the correct handling of the relationship between reform, development, and stability. The Communist Party of China (CPC) and the Chinese government have consistently attached great importance to this relationship, always maintaining that "upholding the policy that stability is an overriding priority and correctly handling the relationship between reform, development, and stability" ^[16] is one of the fundamental experiences that must be adhered to in the Party's leadership of the people in building socialism with Chinese characteristics. It is precisely because the relationship between reform, development, and stability has been well-handled that China has been able to calmly respond to various tests and challenges, overcoming a series of difficulties and risks, ensuring that socialism with Chinese characteristics always moves forward in the right direction, and achieving great success in the construction of socialism with Chinese characteristics in the New Era. This experience is undoubtedly enlightening for African countries facing multiple challenges such as weak governance capacity, irrational economic structures, terrorism, armed conflict, and political instability. Most Western paths to modernization were linked to expansionism and hegemonism, whereas China has blazed a trail for modernization that maintains peaceful development and promotes win-win cooperation. As a builder of world peace, a contributor to global governance, and a defender of the international order, China unswervingly follows the path of peaceful development and hopes that all countries in the world will jointly follow the path of peaceful development. History and practice have already proven that this path is not only correct and feasible, but also steady and successful.

The 20th century was a century in which China and Africa shared a common destiny, as they forged a profound friendship characterized by "breathing the same air, sharing the same fate, and linking heart to heart" ^[17]. The 21st century will be a century of common development for China and Africa; in this century, the two great civilizations of China and Africa will jointly plan for development, realize their respective great dreams, and build an even closer China-Africa community with a shared future. Currently, mutual learning between Chinese and African civilizations has entered the level of conceptual exchange ^[18]. It is the right time for both sides to strengthen the sharing of experience in poverty reduction and modernization theory and practice. This not only conforms to the aspirations of the Chinese and African peoples but also meets the needs of the current times. The successful opening of the path of Chinese-path modernization announces to the world that the era of "remaking the world in the image of the West" ^[19] has ended; it announces the singularity and bias of the formula "modernization = Westernization"; and it announces that developing countries have finally broken free from the shackles and control of Western modernist logic to embark on a new path of independent modernization. Human history is not a simple linear process; every society evolves according to its own developmental laws, presenting diverse directions and paths of development. The modernization ideology promoted by the West, which carries a hegemonic mindset, has become obsolete. What path will African modernization take? Perhaps the path of Chinese-path modernization can provide some beneficial insights for African friends—who possess "ancient civilizations," "a love for new things," and "superlative creativity"—allowing Africa to endow modernization with more connotations based on its own conditions and values.

(Author Profile: Li Xinfeng is a professor at the School of International Politics and Economics, University of Social Sciences of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, and the Executive President and Researcher at the China-Africa Institute.)

Online Editor: Tongxin Source: Marxism Studies (《马克思主义研究》), Issue 4, 2022.