Tong Fei: High-Quality Joint Construction of the "Belt and Road" Between China and Africa: Concepts, Foundations, Dilemmas, and Countermeasures
Since Chinese President Xi Jinping proposed the cooperative initiatives of the "Silk Road Economic Belt" and the "21st Century Maritime Silk Road" (abbreviated as the "Belt and Road") in 2013, China-Africa "Belt and Road" cooperation has moved from the periphery to the center. The African continent possesses vast territory, abundant resources, and a young labor force structure; moreover, it is in the early stages of industrialization and urbanization, with a strong demand for the introduction of foreign capital and technology. This creates a highly complementary relationship with China's "Belt and Road Initiative" (BRI). Judging from existing achievements, China-Africa "Belt and Road" cooperation has exceeded expectations, laying a solid foundation for building a "community with a shared future for humanity" in the China-Africa context. Guiding China-Africa "Belt and Road" cooperation toward a stage of high-quality development aligns with the fundamental requirements of both parties for economic quality enhancement and upgrading. Currently, there is a considerable body of research on China-Africa "Belt and Road" production capacity cooperation and strategic alignment. Building upon existing research, this article will further explore China’s cooperation philosophy regarding the "Belt and Road" in Africa, as well as the foundations, difficulties, and countermeasures for high-quality development in this area.
I. China-Africa Cooperation and the "Belt and Road" Philosophy
The BRI is a Chinese solution [1] through which China seeks common development with countries along the routes and the collective construction of a better world. Africa has long been the most backward and least developed region in the world; the lack of effective drivers for growth and sustainable development has consistently been a difficult problem troubling most countries in the region. By jointly building the "Belt and Road" with Africa, China has brought development opportunities to the latter. At present, the enthusiasm of both China and Africa for the joint construction of the "Belt and Road" remains undiminished, which essentially reflects the resilient vitality of China’s new "Belt and Road" cooperation philosophy. Xi Jinping has pointed out that peace and development remain the themes of the times. Particularly for developing countries, development is the "master key" [2] to solving all problems. Seeking development through cooperation and achieving complementary advantages and mutual benefit are the core characteristics of the China-Africa "Belt and Road" philosophy.
First, the philosophy of China-Africa joint construction of the "Belt and Road" is rooted in China's new vision of the international order. China closely links its own destiny with that of the countries of Asia, Africa, and Latin America, opposes hegemonism, and advocates for the democratization of international relations; Africa is regarded by China as a truly equal partner. Xi Jinping chose Africa for his first overseas visit after taking office and proposed the concept of building a "China-Africa community with a shared future." This is considered "a 'development rebalancing strategy' based on Chinese wisdom and magnanimity, focusing on the construction and shaping of a new type of international relations characterized by common and cooperative human development; it is essentially different from the old-style international relations system dominated by Western countries since the modern era, which was characterized by the 'law of the jungle' and hegemonic governance." In 2015, at the Johannesburg Summit of the Forum on China-Africa Cooperation (FOCAC), Africa’s positioning within the "Belt and Road" became increasingly clear. The summit's joint declaration proposed to align "China's initiative to build the 'Silk Road Economic Belt' and the '21st Century Maritime Silk Road' with Africa's economic integration and the realization of sustainable development, seeking more opportunities to promote common development and realize common dreams."
Second, adhering to common development and win-win cooperation is the spiritual core of China-Africa "Belt and Road" construction. During his first visit to Tanzania, Xi Jinping proposed the four principles of "sincerity, real results, amity, and good faith" (zhēn, shí, qīn, chéng) [3] for cooperation with Africa, laying the philosophical foundation for China-Africa cooperative and common development. At the FOCAC Johannesburg Summit, Xi Jinping proposed: "We should give full play to the advantages of China-Africa political mutual trust and economic complementarity, using production capacity cooperation and the 'three networks and one industrialization' [4] as a starting point to comprehensively deepen China-Africa cooperation in various fields, so that the Chinese and African peoples can share the fruits of cooperative development." At this summit, Xi Jinping proposed the "Ten Major Cooperation Plans" for China and Africa, covering industrialization, agricultural modernization, infrastructure, finance, green development, trade and investment facilitation, poverty reduction and public welfare, public health, people-to-people exchanges, and peace and security. It can be seen that China's philosophy of cooperation with Africa, while taking into account China's own development, is based on African needs, focusing on areas where Africa urgently requires development, and continuously broadening and consolidating the foundation for cooperation. The "Ten Major Cooperation Plans" marked Africa's formal integration into the BRI. Subsequently, China and Africa have continuously aligned their development strategies, laying the groundwork for close cooperation.
Third, adhering to the principle of honoring promises and maintaining credibility is the basis of conviction for the China-Africa "Belt and Road." At the 2018 High-Level Dialogue Between Chinese and African Leaders and Business Representatives and the Sixth China-Africa Business Forum, Xi Jinping pointed out that the joint construction of the "Belt and Road" by China and Africa is a path of pragmatic cooperation where "words must be followed by actions and actions must produce results" (yán bì xíng, xíng bì guǒ) [5]. China-Africa cooperation identifies the key constraints on African development, such as insufficient infrastructure, and puts funds where they are most needed (yòng zài dāo rèn shàng) [6], avoiding "vanity projects" (huā jià zi) [7]. On the eve of the 2018 FOCAC Beijing Summit, the Chinese government announced that the economic and trade measures of the "Ten Major Cooperation Plans" identified at the Johannesburg Summit had been fully implemented, and China had been Africa’s largest trading partner for nine consecutive years. China’s commitment to honoring its word and maintaining credibility is an important reason for winning the sincere support of African countries for the "Belt and Road."
Fourth, China-Africa "Belt and Road" cooperation follows a pragmatic philosophy of progressive, step-by-step advancement. The 2018 FOCAC Beijing Summit not only summarized previous achievements in China-Africa cooperation but also put forward new requirements for "precise alignment" to continue deepening cooperation. "We must seize the opportunity of the alignment of China-Africa development strategies, make good use of the major opportunities brought by the joint construction of the 'Belt and Road,' and align the 'Belt and Road' construction with the implementation of the African Union’s Agenda 2063, the UN 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, and the development strategies of various African countries; we must open up new spaces for cooperation, tap into new cooperative potential, cultivate deeply in traditional areas of advantage, and accelerate the cultivation of highlights in the new economy." Building on the "Ten Major Cooperation Plans," this summit proposed "Eight Major Actions," focusing on strengthening cooperation in infrastructure connectivity, green industries, health and hygiene, people-to-people exchanges, and loan financing, while increasing support for industrial development, diversified financing, and youth vocational training in Africa’s least developed countries. The COVID-19 pandemic became a new opportunity to deepen China-Africa cooperation. In June 2020, addressing the difficulties of vaccine shortages and economic livelihoods in Africa, Chinese and African leaders held the Extraordinary China-Africa Summit on Solidarity Against COVID-19. Xi Jinping proposed accelerating "Belt and Road" construction, with a focus on health and hygiene, resuming work and production, and improving livelihoods, while exempting some African countries from interest-free loan debts due by the end of 2020 and accelerating cooperation in areas such as the digital economy and new energy.
Fifth, the ultimate goal of conviction for China-Africa "Belt and Road" cooperation is to build a China-Africa community with a shared future. The "China-Africa community with a shared future" is the general direction for the cooperative relationship proposed by Xi Jinping during his first visit to Africa, and it is also the ultimate goal of the joint construction of the "Belt and Road." The pragmatic cooperation of the "Belt and Road" has laid a solid foundation for the accelerated construction of this community. At the Eighth Ministerial Conference of FOCAC in 2021, Xi Jinping delivered a keynote speech titled "Stay Together Through Thick and Thin, Build on Past Achievements to Forge Ahead, and Jointly Build a China-Africa Community with a Shared Future in the New Era," linking China-Africa cooperation—represented by the "Belt and Road"—more explicitly with the goal of building a bilateral community with a shared future, which won wide recognition from African countries.
II. The Practical Foundation for High-Quality China-Africa "Belt and Road" Construction
After nearly a decade of practice, the high-quality joint construction of the "Belt and Road" between China and Africa already possesses a solid material foundation, a multi-layered institutional foundation for cooperation, and a broad foundation of public support.
First, a solid material foundation. Benefiting from the support of "Belt and Road" projects and the continuous enhancement of political mutual trust, China and Africa have formed a close, mutually beneficial, and win-win cooperative relationship. Trade between China and Africa has generally shown a trend of rapid growth; although bilateral trade volume temporarily declined under the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic, it quickly recovered to original levels and rebounded rapidly. In 2021, the bilateral trade volume reached US$254.2 billion, a year-on-year increase of 35%, and China has remained Africa’s largest trading partner for 13 consecutive years. In the same year, China’s direct investment across all industries in Africa increased by 26.1% year-on-year, and the value of new contracts for engineering projects increased by 14.7% year-on-year. Driven by "Belt and Road" projects, the achievements of China’s infrastructure aid and cooperation in Africa have also been recognized by authoritative Western institutions. The famous British think tank, The Economist, reported that in 2020, 31% of infrastructure projects in Africa valued at US$50 million or more were undertaken by Chinese companies, compared to only 12% in 2013. Existing research shows that "Belt and Road" cooperation has made important contributions to African industrial development. China has not only provided a large amount of aid to African agriculture over the long term but has also adhered to "developmental poverty alleviation," changing "blood transfusions" into "blood generation" [8] by exporting agricultural technology and training technical personnel to help African countries improve their level of agricultural modernization. In terms of industry, led by China-Africa economic and trade cooperation zones, the construction of industrial parks is flourishing, becoming important bases for China-Africa production capacity cooperation, policy coordination, and the integration of capital and technology. The joint construction of the "Digital Silk Road" between China and Africa has achieved significant results. China has established extensive cooperative relationships with African countries in the fields of digital infrastructure, digital talent cooperation, digital payments, e-commerce, digital technical assistance, and R&D, laying a solid foundation for the high-quality joint construction of the "Digital Silk Road."
Second, a multi-layered system of cooperation. The "Belt and Road" mechanism between China and Africa is a model of multilateral cooperation, reflecting the stabilization, institutionalization, and standardization of the cooperative relationship. First, the China-Africa "Belt and Road" cooperation mechanism relies on the overall enhancement of China-Africa relations. As of November 2021, China has established comprehensive strategic cooperative partnerships with nine African countries, comprehensive strategic partnerships with three countries, strategic partnerships with six countries, and comprehensive cooperative partnerships with seven countries. "China has established bilateral committees, diplomatic consultations, or strategic dialogue mechanisms with 21 African countries and the African Union Commission, and established joint (mixed) economic and trade committee mechanisms with 51 African countries." "In 2017, China and South Africa established the first intergovernmental high-level people-to-people exchange mechanism between China and Africa." "Since 2012, China and Africa have held four sessions of the Forum on China-Africa Local Government Cooperation." The overall enhancement of China-Africa relations has laid the foundation for the high-quality development and institutional construction of the "Belt and Road."
Next, the China-Africa "Belt and Road" cooperation mechanism mainly exists at two levels. The first is the signing of "Belt and Road" cooperation agreements with specific countries. In 2015, South Africa became the first country to sign a "Belt and Road" cooperation document with China; subsequently, North African countries such as Egypt, Morocco, and Tunisia also signed "Belt and Road" cooperation documents. At the 2018 FOCAC Beijing Summit, another 28 African countries joined the "Belt and Road" cooperation framework. As of January 2021, 46 countries on the African continent had signed "Belt and Road" cooperation agreements with China. The second level is the mechanism for cooperation and alignment with Africa as a whole. FOCAC, established in 2000, has become a solid institutional foundation for the joint construction of the "Belt and Road." FOCAC includes rich cooperative content in political, economic, and cultural fields, achieving a perfect alignment of BRI concepts and mechanisms. Currently, FOCAC has developed into a multi-layered framework including summits, ministerial conferences, extraordinary summits, and specialized cooperation mechanisms, becoming the main mechanism for promoting China-Africa "Belt and Road" multilateral cooperation. In June 2020, the "China-Africa Economic and Trade Expo" was established under FOCAC, hosted regularly by Hunan Province every two years. It can be seen that China-Africa "Belt and Road" cooperation possesses multi-layered and wide-ranging cooperation mechanisms, providing multi-channel communication platforms for China-Africa economic and trade cooperation and even cooperation in the field of security.
Third, a broad base of public support. China upholds the principles of "extensive consultation, joint contribution, and shared benefits," remains true to its word and resolute in its deeds in Belt and Road cooperation with Africa, and has achieved results obvious to all. This has led to relatively positive evaluations of Chinese Belt and Road projects in Africa. Measuring the foundation of people-to-people bonds [9] in Africa can be divided into two levels: the first is the elite level. African political elites generally recognize the Belt and Road between China and Africa as a path of common development and shared prosperity, granting high levels of support to China's initiative to build a community with a shared future for humanity. The second is the popular level. Although perceptions of China and the Belt and Road Initiative vary among the populaces of different African countries and have been negatively affected by Western stigmatization of China since the COVID-19 pandemic, positive and active perceptions remain the mainstream. According to Afrobarometer, a famous polling agency, between 2019 and 2021, 63% of Africans across 35 countries believed China's economic and political influence in Africa was "positive" or "very positive." A German polling agency found that 62% of African respondents hoped to participate in more Belt and Road projects. The agency also found that satisfaction with Belt and Road projects in Africa was higher than in any other region where China also cooperates. Africa's positive perception is rooted in the active contribution of Belt and Road projects to the region's economic development and is the inevitable result of China and Africa strengthening people-to-people exchanges and connectivity.
III. Practical Dilemmas and Responses for High-Quality Chinese-Path Modernization through Joint Construction of the Belt and Road between China and Africa
Moving from "joint construction of the Belt and Road" to "high-quality joint construction of the Belt and Road" is both an internal requirement for the economic development of China and Africa and an inevitable trend if both sides are to maintain sustainable cooperation. However, high-quality joint construction of the Belt and Road requires overcoming certain difficulties in current Sino-African cooperation. Only by resolving these issues effectively can the objectives of "high standards, sustainability, and benefitting the people's livelihoods" be ensured. The main practical dilemmas facing the high-quality joint construction of the Belt and Road between China and Africa include the following points.
First, the sustainability challenge of existing Sino-African cooperation models. China's Belt and Road projects in Africa rely primarily on Chinese financing, with relatively narrow channels, which also places increasingly heavy pressure on China. Some scholars have pointed out that the infrastructure contracting model supported by Chinese state loans is difficult to sustain. Currently, China's provision of infrastructure public goods to Africa faces dilemmas regarding financial and financing sustainability, as well as problems with operation and maintenance after completion; at times, it also triggers dissatisfaction among local populations due to environmental protection issues. Meanwhile, African countries maintain high expectations for continued investment from China. Therefore, while China assumes its corresponding responsibilities for aid to Africa, maintaining a balance between input and output is an important guarantee for the healthy cooperation and sustainability of the Belt and Road.
The small scale of trade between Africa and China and the long-term trade deficit are also detrimental to the sustainability of Belt and Road cooperation. Overall, Africa remains industrially backward with underdeveloped manufacturing; African exports to China consist primarily of agricultural and mineral products. Although China is Africa's largest trading partner, Africa occupies a low status in China's overall trade. In 2021, the trade volume between China and Africa was far smaller than that between China and the EU, Southeast Asia, or Latin America, and Africa's trade deficit with China reached $43 billion. The current state of Sino-African trade is fundamentally constrained by the backward industrial conditions and structural problems of African countries, but it also easily triggers nationalistic sentiments in some African countries, even leading to xenophobic resistance against investments, products, and technologies from China.
Second, political instability in some African countries, poor social security, and a lack of policy continuity. Since the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic, the socio-economic conditions in some African countries have deteriorated, the gap between rich and poor has widened, youth unemployment has risen, and coups have occurred in several nations. From August 2020 to February 2022, a total of seven coups or attempted coups took place in Africa. In these countries, the new governments following the coups lack the capacity for national governance, and their legitimacy is questioned, exacerbating political instability. Accompanying these coups, the number of attacks by remnants of the Islamic State and Al-Qaeda in some African countries (such as Mali and Burkina Faso) has increased significantly. Data shows that from 2020 to 2021, the number of attacks by armed Islamic groups in African countries increased by 70%. Transitions between old and new governments often lead to existing Belt and Road projects being subjected to re-examination, increasing the uncertainty of project implementation, while social security issues also affect the personal safety of employees in host countries, increasing security costs and construction risks.
Third, differences in perceptions of China across different African nations. Although African countries are generally positive toward China, it varies by country. The 2021 Afrobarometer indicates that in countries like Kenya, Ethiopia, Morocco, Sudan, South Africa, and Zambia, more than half of the public believes their government has borrowed too much from China, posing a "debt trap" risk. In Tunisia (30%), Zimbabwe (38%), South Africa (40%), Sierra Leone (43%), and Angola (44%), less than half of the populace believes China has had a positive influence on their country. Multiple factors influence public sentiment and perception. For instance, specific Chinese enterprises' lack of understanding of local laws and regulations has led to labor disputes and environmental issues, causing negative sentiment among local people; there is also local exclusion regarding the employment of Chinese laborers in the country. Furthermore, narratives from Western political circles and media regarding China engaging in "neo-colonialism" and "debt traps" in Africa have had an influence on local populations that cannot be ignored.
Fourth, the increasingly fierce competition between major powers in Africa. In recent years, some countries have become increasingly concerned about the expansion of China's Belt and Road Initiative in Africa, placing more importance on engagement with Africa and launching African strategies with clear competitive overtones toward China. In 2018, the U.S. Congress passed the "Better Utilization of Investments Leading to Development Act" (BUILD), which doubled the default protection fees for U.S. investment in infrastructure projects in developing countries; this was widely seen as an important bill through which the U.S. sought to counter China's Belt and Road infrastructure projects, particularly those in Africa. After Biden took office, the United States placed even greater emphasis on cooperation with Africa. While the U.S. is unlikely to increase aid for African economic development, it will project its influence in areas like disease prevention, climate change, and the promotion of democracy. The EU is a traditional and important donor and partner for Africa. The EU has also proposed a counter-strategy to China’s rising influence in Africa. In December 2021, the European Commission launched the "Global Gateway" strategy, aiming to "develop smart, clean, and secure digital, energy, and transport sectors to strengthen influence in global health, education, and research systems." Africa is a vital component of this strategy, which is viewed as Europe's response to China’s "New Silk Road." Additionally, India and Japan each have platforms for cooperation with Africa, namely the India-Africa Forum Summit (IAFS) and the Tokyo International Conference on African Development (TICAD). Both countries have extensive cooperation with nations like Mozambique, Zambia, and South Africa in agriculture, infrastructure, minerals, and energy.
Despite numerous challenges, the foundation of Sino-African cooperation is solid. If issues regarding sustainability, policy communication, and precise alignment are resolved, the prospects for high-quality joint construction of the Belt and Road between China and Africa will be extremely broad. The main issues that need to be addressed in the future for high-quality joint construction include the following aspects.
First, high-quality joint construction of the Belt and Road must be precisely aligned with the industries that Africa urgently needs to develop. We need to pay further attention to the weak links in African industrial development. Africa’s agricultural foundation is weak, self-sufficiency has never been achieved, and there is a high level of dependence on external aid and food imports; after the outbreak of the Russia-Ukraine conflict, Africa’s food supply faces a greater security threat. African manufacturing also suffers from backward technology, a lack of high-end labor, insufficient output, and quality shortcomings; additionally, the infrastructure gap in Africa remains vast. Future industrial alignment between China and Africa needs to be empowered by science, technology, and digital tools to develop green ecological agriculture and high-value-added manufacturing, while infrastructure projects must achieve a high degree of integration with local industries.
Second, the institutional framework for Sino-African joint construction of the Belt and Road needs further improvement. The Forum on China-Africa Cooperation (FOCAC) has played a well-deserved role as a platform in promoting the joint construction of the Belt and Road. However, FOCAC currently faces issues such as institutional innovation, the regulation of cooperation scale, and the expansion of cooperation content, as well as pressure from competition over international rules and norms dominated by Western countries, and challenges from a shrinking space for cooperation in the context of strengthened momentum for African integration. Given the current trend of both the African integration process and individual countries seeking autonomous development, China needs to adopt a two-pronged approach, strengthening institutional cooperation with African countries at both the aggregate level and within specific industrial levels. On one hand, we should promote the establishment of alignment mechanisms between the Belt and Road and African integration. In terms of top-level design, we must strengthen alignment and policy communication mechanisms with the African Union; for specific projects, we should strengthen mechanism-building for cross-border infrastructure, digital connectivity, and industrial integration capabilities. On the other hand, we need to deeply understand the needs of various African countries and establish cooperation mechanisms centered on specific industries; for example, an integrated cooperation platform for Sino-African agricultural cooperation could be established to provide one-stop services such as policy communication and investment/financing consulting.
Third, the high-quality joint construction of the Belt and Road between China and Africa must pay more attention to cultivating Africa's autonomy in international development. Chinese aid to Africa has continued for decades, but the current model faces sustainability challenges. Relevant departments should conduct a comprehensive assessment of African projects supported by Chinese loans and, on this basis, strengthen policy communication with African countries. High-quality joint construction of the Belt and Road should place more emphasis on cultivating the autonomous development capacity of African countries. We need to explore diverse and flexible methods for investment, financing, and profit returns, and mobilize the strength of local African ethnic enterprises while improving the standardization and transparency of the financing process. Before bidding on projects, Chinese enterprises should strengthen their assessment of whether the local government can effectively maintain operations after project delivery, avoiding resource waste or damage to the reputation of Chinese-constructed projects due to the other party's inability to manage them.
Fourth, tell the story of Sino-African Belt and Road cooperation well, and provide positive guidance regarding African public opinion on China. Since the COVID-19 pandemic, Western countries have intensified their smear campaigns against China and Belt and Road projects, which has negatively impacted some African citizens. Currently, there is a "temperature difference" in the perception of China and Belt and Road projects in Africa, characterized by "heat at the government level and coolness at the grassroots level." The Chinese government and enterprises need to strengthen communication and exchange with local people through multiple channels, especially by selecting talents who understand local languages and cultures to localize the promotion of the Belt and Road story. Additionally, we should leverage the natural advantages of local employees trained by Chinese enterprises, who understand both Chinese culture and can communicate easily with their fellow citizens, guiding them to strengthen the promotion of Chinese culture, Chinese brands, and Belt and Road projects. This will yield twice the result with half the effort.
Practice has proven that the joint construction of the Belt and Road between China and Africa has clear goals and pragmatic advancement, and has established a stable and close mechanism for cooperation, making Belt and Road projects an inevitable choice for building a community with a shared future for China and Africa. Under the current complex international situation, China needs to target "high standards, sustainability, and benefitting the people's livelihoods" to improve the quality of the joint construction of the Belt and Road, ensuring that Sino-African cooperation moves forward steadily and reaches far. Although there are many problems and challenges in Sino-African Belt and Road cooperation, it simultaneously contains new opportunities for improving the quality of cooperation. The Chinese government and enterprises need to fully recognize the current problems in Sino-African Belt and Road cooperation and use the resolution of these problems as a starting point to push Sino-African cooperation to a higher stage.
(Author: Tong Fei, Director of the Security Research Office and Associate Researcher, China-Africa Institute, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences)
Online Editor: Tong Xin Source: World Socialism Studies, Issue 11, 2022