Lu Yizhi: Deconstructing the Discourse System and Discourse Power of American Democracy
Following the end of the Cold War, and particularly since the dawn of the 21st century—marked by the shattering of the neoliberal globalization myth and the eruption of the global financial crisis—the United States has suffered from a lack of developmental momentum. Conversely, non-Western countries, especially emerging economies, have demonstrated vigorous developmental prospects. To obstruct the progress of non-Western nations and contain the growth of their power, the United States has not hesitated to employ every available means—including political, economic, cultural, technological, and military measures—to launch all-encompassing crackdowns against them. Within this context, ideological and value-based offensives and infiltration, centered on so-called "democracy, freedom, and equality," occupy a significant position.
In their counterattacks against American values and ideology, officials, academics, and the public in non-Western countries are prone to falling, consciously or unconsciously, into the democratic discourse traps constructed by the United States. They rely excessively on the concepts, standards, and theories of democracy established by the U.S., as well as its paradigms for interpreting and judging democracy. They spin in circles within the framework of so-called "universal" American-style democracy—an elaborate disguise—failing to timely construct their own national democratic discourse systems or provide powerful theoretical support when guiding their own people's democratic practices. Countering the American-style democratic discourse system and its power of discourse requires analyzing, deconstructing, and critiquing its false essence and hypocrisy, particularly the deceptive and anti-people nature of its theoretical foundations, substantive connotations, construction paths, and methodological frameworks. It is a fundamental task for us to clarify the real purpose behind the U.S. monopoly on the power of democratic discourse and its manipulative tactics used to maintain dominance in the international community. We must reveal the face of its false universality and its true deception of the people by using American democratic discourse habits and modes of expression that the U.S. can understand, thereby delegating American-style democracy to its rightful place in the civilization of human society.
I. West-centrism is the Theoretical Foundation for the Construction of the American-style Democratic Discourse System and Power of Discourse.
Since the onset of the modern era, propelled by the Reformation, the Enlightenment, and successive technological revolutions, Western countries were the first to enter industrial society. They made significant strides in modernization, the bourgeoisie secured absolute dominance, and the capitalist system was established across various nations. Correspondingly, the West achieved major developments in thought, theory, and scholarship. It established concepts, categories, viewpoints, theories, and methods across various fields and disciplines that conformed to Western characteristics and rules. To a certain extent, this advanced the civilization of human society and made relatively large contributions to human progress. Relying on its formidable comprehensive power in economics, technology, and other sectors, the United States became the world's new hegemon. It monopolized the right to define, interpret, judge, and narrate ideological and cultural matters like democracy, canonizing American-style democracy as the sole authority. It denies, slanders, and suppresses the efforts of people in non-Western countries to explore, innovate, and develop democratic connotations and forms suited to themselves based on their own national cultural traditions and developmental characteristics, vilifying them as "undemocratic" or "autocratic." The U.S. arrogantly views its own ideology, culture, and academic theories as superior, regarding the democratic thoughts and theories created by non-Western nations as erroneous or backward. It intentionally constructs and promotes "West-centrism" and "cultural exceptionalism" in the ideological and cultural spheres, attempting to strike down and suppress the exploration, creation, and development of non-Western nations.
1. National (Racial) Superiority.
The belief that Western nations (races) are the most superior in the world has a long historical pedigree in the West, which was reinforced with the sprouting of the capitalist mode of production and the onset of the Enlightenment. Early Western thinkers even harbored doubts about whether non-Western peoples—such as those in Africa, Latin America, South Asia, the Middle East, and the Far East—could even be called "human" in a civilized sense. They believed that "only 'Christian man' (an expression still familiar since Martin Luther) is truly a man," while "all strangers" outside the West were "not 'men'." The German philosopher Michael Landmann explicitly termed this phenomenon "ethnocentrism."
Since entering the barbaric era of colonial plunder—bolstered by the powerful drive of large-scale machine industry, the continuous flow of wealth and resources from colonies, and the labor of enslaved foreign peoples—the West achieved even faster development. This created the material conditions and social demands for the development of its thoughts, theories, and scholarship. Consequently, Western ideology, culture, and various academic theories took the stage in a flourish of diversity. However, Western ideological and cultural development lacked a spirit of inclusiveness or a willingness to learn from foreign cultures. Leveraging the formidable strength created by their first-mover advantage in adopting modern production methods and their dominant position in the international community, they extolled and propagated Western national (racial) superiority and cultural exceptionalism. These theories, imbued with racism and centered on the West, constructed "theoretical frameworks" and "research paradigms" such as "center-periphery," "West-East," "advanced-backward," and "hegemony-dependence." With an arrogant posture that looked down upon and despised the ideology and culture of other nations (races), they constructed their own ideological and cultural hegemony and power of discourse through the establishment of concepts, definition of categories, construction of theories, and formulation of methods. They then used this to retrospectively prove the superiority of Western nations (races), emphasizing that only they could create superior culture. For instance, the German historian Leopold von Ranke pointed out that "some nations are completely incapable of culture... human thought was only historically produced among the great nations (referring to Western European countries)." Some Western scholars have even claimed that only Western nations are capable of creating "a series of thoughts, theories, and cultures with universal significance and value." Proving that Western nations (races) are superior to others solely from the perspective of being the first to create modern production methods and construct modern theories is clearly biased.
Western thinkers also conducted deep research into traditional Chinese thought and culture, particularly ideas and systems regarding democracy and autocracy. They believed that while China lacked a tradition of democratic systems, it possessed a tradition of democratic thought. However, they interpreted Chinese democratic thought as "the people as masters," which differs from the modern Western capitalist democratic definition specifically referring to "electing managers" and institutional arrangements like the separation of powers and checks and balances. they argued that China's traditional political system was "despotism" [1], defined as "a single individual directing everything according to their own will and capricious temperament." They claimed the characteristics and methods of despotic governance required absolute obedience from the people, with no room for compromise or bargaining between the ruler and the ruled. In China's despotic society, "one being simply obeys another being who issues the will." They argued that thousands of years of autocratic rule caused despotism to become deeply rooted, and that this system and ideology clearly hindered modern China's development; however, because the Chinese people did not know how to shatter it, they were "not a clever nation." Western thinkers, including Diderot and Herder, also analyzed and researched the thoughts, cultures, and systems of democracy and autocracy in Eastern countries like China. They ultimately reached an explicit conclusion: the West is a prosperous, developing, democratic, progressive, and civilized society, while Eastern societies like China are the opposite—ignorant, backward, barbaric, autocratic, and without a future. It is evident that since the Enlightenment, Western thinkers have never abandoned or reflected upon their stance of Western national (racial) superiority.
The United States has perfectly inherited the theory of Western national (racial) superiority from early Western thinkers. Not only does it hold high the racist banner of Western superiority, but it also boasts of being the "Chosen People," claiming its dominant and leading position in the world is "divinely ordained" (the so-called "City upon a Hill"). It believes it can and should stand above the international community, enjoying the right of "American Exceptionalism" within universal international rules and world order, thereby establishing legitimacy for U.S. global hegemony and the plunder of other countries. The so-called "global governance" promoted by the U.S. government is, in essence, the rule of the Anglo-Saxon race over the world. It believes it should possess such power because it is the most superior nation (race) in the world.
2. Democratic Superiority.
Modern Western thinkers believed that the West enjoys advanced democratic values and other ideological and cultural assets, while other nations remain in a state of ignorance and backwardness. This idea of democratic superiority was "confirmed" by subsequent thinkers like Hegel and Wittfogel [2], and further reinforced by modern thinkers such as Giddens, Huntington, and Fukuyama, as well as the U.S. government. It has become a "settled conclusion" in the United States and a "universal value" of American society. However, the American sense of democratic superiority is very fragile. After the birth of Marxism and the establishment of the socialist system, a new type of democracy—centered on the common ownership of the means of production and the management of the state and society by the people—dealt a massive blow to American-style democracy. To defeat socialism, the United States launched the Cold War characterized by bloc confrontation. In addition to large-scale political, economic, military, and technological containment and blockades, it actively engaged in the infiltration of democratic ideology, culture, and values. Fabricating the lie of American-style democratic superiority became a vital task for American politicians, thinkers, and theorists.
First, they dressed up the forms of democracy. Historically, the bourgeoisie was very repulsed by the connotations and forms of traditional democracy, believing that democracy would lead to "mob rule," disrupt social order, and infringe upon bourgeois private property. Therefore, it was necessary to change the original form of democracy. Through clever whitewashing and decoration, democracy became equated with "democratization and liberalization," encompassing "freedom, equality, human rights, and the rule of law," concretely expressed through the "one person, one vote" electoral form. Second, they set limits on democratic practice. When people exercise their democratic rights, they must protect rather than infringe upon private property. Under "equality for all," the private property of citizens is sacred and inviolable, while the actual goal of capitalist democracy is to "tend toward allowing a minority to monopolize wealth and power." Third, they hollowed out the authentic core of democracy. The original meaning of democracy is rule by the people, where the people manage all affairs of the state. Through the "theoretical innovation" and conceptual conversion of bourgeois theorists and thinkers, capitalist democracy was equated with elections themselves: "elections are the essence of democracy." Capitalist democracy thus became the so-called "people electing managers, who then exercise state power to manage national affairs." Finally, after remodeling and refining democracy, the West used academic exchanges and propaganda agencies to promote it in a sanctified and absolutist manner. In particular, they preached that it could solve all economic and social problems and was the most superior form of democracy in the world. This gradually formed a tzw. "universal political religion" among some people in many countries, including non-Western ones. They then instructed non-Western countries to follow American liberal-democratic thought in carrying out social transformation and political "reform."
With the end of the Cold War, while the United States celebrated its "victory" over the socialist camp, it did not forget to use its power of discourse in the global arena to vigorously promote its democratic thoughts, theories, and systems. Huntington's "Clash of Civilizations" and Fukuyama's "End of History" both emphasized the superiority of values and ideology centered on American-style democracy. For instance, Fukuyama claimed that only the content and form of American-style democracy constitute "universal" values and ideology for human society, representing the highest form of human civilization, the final form of governance, and the end of history. Joseph Nye emphasized that "soft power," with American-style democracy and freedom at its core, is the inextinguishable lighthouse of human social values. The U.S. government and academia even used American liberal democracy as a blueprint to formulate so-called "democracy indices" to audit whether countries around the world comply with American-style democratic systems and rules, pointing fingers and leveling accusations at the democratic content and institutional arrangements of non-Western countries. The U.S. has also frequently used the slogans "democracy, freedom, and human rights are above sovereignty" as a pretext to impose sanctions, blockades, and embargos, and even launch military aggression against non-Western nations. In recent years, the United States has attempted to forge a "democratic values alliance," an "arc of democracy and freedom," and "values-based diplomacy"—cliques and gangs based on American-style liberal democracy—to wage a "New Cold War" against so-called "non-democratic countries." These are all arrogant performances of the American sense of democratic superiority.
3. Cultural Superiority.
The U.S. government and its intellectual-theoretical circles define American culture as the most superior in the world. They view it not only as a sharp arrow used to defeat the socialist camp and secure victory in the Cold War [3] but also as a vital weapon for suppressing and striking the democratic values, ideologies, and cultures of non-Western nations. The United States believes that contemporary global struggles are still divided along cultural lines; a nation possessing superior culture can not only triumph in struggles against other nations but also seize the greatest economic and strategic interests. With the development of capitalist modernization, American ideological, cultural, and academic circles have broken through old cultural ruts and established new theories and doctrines. Specifically, they have defined new research objects, perspectives, contents, and methods across various disciplines, constructing new theoretical frameworks, research paradigms, academic norms, and value standards in an attempt to lead and dominate the new developments in world thought, culture, and academic theory.
The United States emphasizes that its culture is the most superior in human society, guiding and determining the developmental direction of human civilization. Consequently, it exerts every effort to spread and export this culture globally, striving to incorporate "backward countries" into the American cultural scope and value system. The global expansion of neoliberalism has greatly intensified the diffusion and penetration of American ideology and culture worldwide and strengthened its discourse hegemony. This has granted it a first-mover advantage and dominant position in attacks on the ideologies and cultures of "backward countries," significantly suppressing, slandering, and smearing their traditional national cultures. This has formed a de facto "cultural imperialism," helping the United States conquer and control the minds of the people in these countries, attempting to destroy their national cultures to sever their cultural lifelines, reinforcing West-centrism, and making the East dependent on the West.
II. Hegemonism in Discourse as the Primary Method for Constructing the American-Path Democratic Discourse System and Power
Establishing discourse hegemonism and constructing a hegemony of democratic discourse are the primary methods and pathways for the construction of the American-path democratic discourse system and its power of discourse. Following the global expansion of neoliberalism—especially after the end of the Cold War—and relying on its global hegemony in economic, political, military, and technological fields, the United States has vigorously promoted and forcefully exported so-called "democracy, freedom, and human rights" and other American values, alongside American lifestyles such as individualism, hedonism, and money worship. For a time, this triggered a "trend-following wave" and "imitation show" among some young people in non-Western countries, establishing a "target population" and "social foundation" for the export of American-path democratic values. This drove a "wedge" into the traditional cultures and democratic traditions of these countries, clearing the path for American-path "democratization" and "liberalization."
The purpose of the United States in constructing a hegemony of democratic discourse is to suppress, slander, and smear the democratic values and cultures of non-Western countries, weakening and hollowing out their authentic essence and their traditional or innovative forms of expression. By thoroughly marginalizing them within the international discourse system, the U.S. aims to completely replace them with American-path democratic content, forms, and values, eventually eradicating them to realize the dream of American-path democracy being the sole authority [4] and even unifying the world.
First, smearing and slandering the democratic cultures and values of non-Western nations. This primarily involves three techniques: First, openly attacking and smearing the democracy and values of non-Western countries. The United States dresses up its own democratic content and forms as the sole "standard of democracy" [5] for human society. Any country with democratic cultures and values differing from the American path is attacked and slandered as "unfree and undemocratic," "bad democracy," an "autocratic state," or a "failed state." The United States draws lines based on "democratic values" to establish a so-called "democratic camp," attempting to use bloc superiority to force "non-democratic countries" to "change their tune and path" [6]. This pressures them to revise and excise their own democratic content and practical forms to align with the democratic standards defined by the U.S., ultimately destroying their own traditional national democratic cultures and values to establish American-path democracy.
Second, cultural penetration and conquest through American-path democracy and values. The United States utilizes its monopoly over international discourse power to conduct subtle cultural penetration and conquest regarding democratic values in non-Western countries. This method has been quite successful in the academic circles of some non-Western nations. The United States embeds its defined values, such as democracy, into ideology, culture, and academic theory. Using opportunities like "cultural exchanges" and "academic discussions," it penetrates non-Western countries, causing their people to doubt their own national cultures, leading to historical nihilism, cultural nihilism, and national nihilism [7], and ultimately destroying their national cultures and values. This technique is the most hidden and effective, being low-cost and less likely to alert the governments and people of non-Western countries. This mode of penetration follows a clear path: it begins with translation and introduction by academic circles, then penetrates education departments to instill these ideas in students, and is then publicized through media to brainwash the general public. Once it gains the trust and support of the masses, it achieves the interference, deconstruction, and even replacement of the nation’s democratic and cultural values.
Third, acting as a "lecturing master" [8] of democratic culture. On one hand, it engages in incessant preaching, claiming that American-path democracy is a "universal value" and the "superior culture" of human society. On the other hand, it adopts a stern countenance to threaten nations with labels like "failed state," "axis of evil," "rogue state," "China threat," or "African colonialism," among others. It threatens and "teaches" non-Western countries that they should learn from and establish American-path democratic political systems, tricking them by claiming this is the only way to solve their many social problems and achieve national modernization.
Second, striking at and suppressing the democratic systems and practices explored by non-Western nations, using both peaceful and forceful means. First, it monopolizes the agenda-setting, rule-making, and value-evaluation of democratic discourse. Through academic "research" into the "backward," "autocratic," and "non-democratic" characteristics of non-Western democratic systems, it asserts that these systems hinder these countries' development of modernity and "democratization transition," dragging down their economic and social development. Therefore, non-Western countries are told they should adopt and establish American-path democratic systems. To demonstrate the "grandeur" of American-path democratic theory, American scholars have established numerous dazzling "theoretical frameworks" and "mathematical models," creating a dizzying array of "evaluation systems" and "measurement indicators." The goal is to prove the superiority of the American-path democratic system and the "backwardness" of non-Western democratic systems, inducing non-Western countries to undergo "political transition," "democratic system change," and "developmental tracking" to accept American-path democratic institutional arrangements. Works such as Huntington’s The Third Wave: Democratization in the Late Twentieth Century and Political Order in Changing Societies, Gabriel Almond’s The Civic Culture: Political Attitudes and Democracy in Five Nations, and Arend Lijphart’s Patterns of Democracy: Government Forms and Performance in Thirty-Six Countries are typical representatives.
Second, forcefully imposing American-path democratic systems and practices through military might. The United States has never abandoned the intention of using force to promote American-path democratic systems and practices. For those countries that are not easily penetrated or difficult to "revise," it uses all political, economic, and military means to force the export of democratic systems. It implements political intervention, trade blockades, and economic sanctions—and even military subversion—against countries unwilling to establish Western democratic systems, linking economic aid to American-path democratic political institutions to force non-Western countries into "democratic transition" and "political shifts." U.S. military aggression in the Middle East and interference in Asian, African, and Latin American countries all contain the objective of conducting so-called "democratic experiments" and establishing "democratic models."
Third, containing and destroying the paths of democratic development explored by non-Western nations. A country’s development path naturally includes the developmental path of national culture, such as democratic values; this is a significant national marker that distinguishes it from other countries' paths. To achieve control over non-Western countries, the United States uses various means to attempt to interrupt or contain their democratic development paths. First, it conflates the connotations of "democratization" and "modernization" in discourse, using American-path democratic theory to replace modernization development theory. The United States carefully wove a logic of American-path democratic theory: "democratization equals Westernization, and Westernization equals modernization." It embeds American-path democratic content and forms into modernization development theory, using American-path democratic discourse to surreptitiously replace the modernization development theories of non-Western countries. It instills this in academic circles, the public, and government officials of these countries, falsely claiming that modernization is impossible without following the American path of democratization and that they cannot escape the traditional social forms of economic and social backwardness.
Second, it formulates democratic standards and rules and relies on international discourse power to export them to non-Western countries, attempting to change or "revise" their democratic development paths. The United States advertises itself as a "model of democracy" and the "free world," claiming that American democratic competition and free elections are "universal values" and the "standard" [5] ensuring America's modern development. It claims "democracy is everything" and "democracy is prosperity"—the "happy destination" for all humanity—attracting and inducing people in non-Western countries to admire and pursue the American-path democratic development route. To this end, the United States does not hesitate to incite "democratization movements," resulting in riots and upheavals such as the "Arab Spring," "Rose Revolution," "Tulip Revolution," and "Orange Revolution." The core essence of these is "comprehensive American-path democratization," subverting and destroying the democratic development paths explored by these countries.
III. Extreme Egoism as the Primary Purpose of Constructing the American-Path Democratic Discourse System and Power
The United States exerts every effort to establish a so-called "democratic camp alliance." It mobilizes the strength of this alliance and racks its brains to construct the American-path democratic discourse system and power not out of a sincere desire to help non-Western countries improve their democratic systems or develop their democratic cultures. Instead, it uses democratic discourse power to suppress, strike, and destroy their traditional democratic cultures and values, shaking their confidence in national economic and cultural construction, and even subverting their national regimes to hinder their development toward modern society. It attempts to pin non-Western countries firmly in the position of "resource suppliers" or "commodity producers," forever serving U.S. strategies for world hegemony and its economic, political, and cultural interests.
First, seizing strategic interests. By monopolizing democratic discourse power, the United States positions itself on the moral high ground of democratic values and ideology over non-Western countries, possessing the "rationality," "legitimacy," and "impartiality" to smear, slander, and suppress them. It uses democratic values as a weapon and bargaining chip to subvert the regimes of non-Western countries, forcing them to make major strategic concessions.
First, incited "democratization" movements in non-Western countries. By defining American-path democracy as "universal value," "democratic value," and "the democratic system," and defining the democracy of non-Western countries as "undemocratic," "anti-democratic," or "evil states," it slanders these governments as "autocratic" and "dictatorial" regimes that should be overthrown. It pushes so-called "democratization" movements in these countries to subvert their regimes and disrupt their economic and social development.
Second, constructing neoliberal theory and rules with American-path democracy as a key component, depicting them as the fundamental norms of modern social development. It uses American development theory and "modernization practice" to argue for the superiority and "advanced nature" of American-path democracy. Simultaneously, it "proves" the "backwardness" of the democratic systems and traditional cultures of non-Western countries, inducing them to believe they must learn and absorb American-path democratic thoughts, connotations, and systems—and accept American-path democracy in its entirety—to advance national modernization.
Third, granting itself "legitimacy" for global hegemony. Because American-path democracy is superior and advanced, the United States supposedly has the responsibility and obligation to save the people of countries in a backward state or under the rule of "autocratic" and "dictatorial" governments. It preaches that "freedom, democracy, equality, and human rights transcend sovereignty," making U.S. blockades, embargoes, penetration, and military strikes against these countries "legitimate." The United States seizes the moral high ground with democratic discourse power and uses its democratic value system to unify the global value system, leaving non-Western countries with nowhere to speak and making it difficult for them to defend themselves. This places them in an extremely disadvantageous strategic position, whereby they can eventually only surrender strategic interests to the United States to gain temporary time and space for development.
Second, the plundering of economic interests. The US officialdom, as well as its intellectual and academic circles, believe that the discourse of American-style democracy can be converted into economic gain. They believe it can be fully utilized to attack and suppress non-Western countries by linking the economic development of these countries to democracy. They falsely claim that the "economic development of non-Western countries is anti-democratic," that "commodities restrict freedom," and that "commodity production suppresses human rights." Through such means, they smear, slander, and even subject the economic development plans, goals, and policies of non-Western countries to blockades, embargos, and sanctions. This is designed to strike at and suppress the process and momentum of their economic development, thereby seizing material wealth and economic benefits for themselves.
The primary tactics include: First, linking democracy to economic and trade exchanges or economic aid provided to non-Western countries. They demand that these countries implement neoliberalism and pursue political and economic reforms and social engineering—such as political "democratization," market "liberalization," and property "privatization." Alignment with the American "democratic and free" social system and adherence to the "golden rules" [9] of neoliberalism are treated as prerequisites and conditions. Second, they suppress industries, sectors, and sciences and technologies in non-Western countries that are developing well or have the potential to surpass the United States. The pretext is that these industries and tech sectors are "undemocratic," involve "forced labor," or damage US "national security." The methods of attack involve organizing and mobilizing the "democratic camp" and coercing other relevant countries to participate in banning the supply of production equipment, components, parts, or related software. They engage in trade embargos, "economic decoupling," and the elimination of "industrial chain dependency," while aggressively pursuing trade protectionism and unilateralism in an attempt to squeeze these non-Western countries and related industries out of the world market.
By using so-called "democracy, freedom," and other values as conditions, the United States exerts every effort to export neoliberalism to non-Western countries, forcing their "democratization, liberalization, marketization, and privatization." This opens the door for American capital, which, wielding immense strength and sophisticated modern capital operation techniques, effortlessly realizes the control and "purchase" of these countries' high-quality and "distressed" assets. For the economic industries and science and technology of non-Western countries that show momentum toward catching up with or surpassing the United States, the US utilizes the Western bloc and its first-mover advantage. It employs all available means to suppress their development momentum and obstruct their climb to high-level status, attempting to nail them forever into the position of low-end industrial chain participants and assemblers and processors of commodities, all to serve American economic interests.
Third, the extraction of political interests. The American bourgeois ruling elite is not satisfied with merely seizing the political interests of its own people. Therefore, it is a natural course of action for the United States to suppress the democracy and political systems of non-Western countries, forcing them to make political compromises and concessions. By monopolizing the right to speak on democracy, the United States takes the connotations of American-style democratic values and political thought as the core content and fundamental values of American politics, enshrining them as the "Political Bible" for external political export. Internationally, the United States draws a line between "democratic and non-democratic countries," instigating camp-based confrontation and political antagonism. It organizes a "democratic camp" and pressures small and weak nations to become its dependents. It launches attacks against "non-democratic countries" regarding democratic values and smears them over "freedom" and "human rights," forcing them to follow and adhere to the West, recognize and accept the American "democratic system," and establish American-style political thought, institutions, and culture, thereby becoming political vassals of the West.
The primary method the United States uses to extract political interests is the utilization of its discourse power over democracy and other concepts to carry out political deception and fraud against the people of the world. The technique is not complex: it involves concocting, forging, and faking information; grafting and tailoring "evidence"; selectively hyping or censoring information; and creating "information cocoons." It applies double standards to similar issues depending on the country: in the US, it is "democracy, freedom, and human rights," while in non-Western countries, it is "autocracy, dictatorship, and the suppression of human rights." Strikes and marches by the American people are labeled "riots" and "insurrections," while riots and terrorist attacks in non-Western countries and regions are called "opposition to tyranny" and "a beautiful sight to behold" [10]. Since the Cold War, the United States has incited round after round of so-called "democracy movements" and "waves of revolution" in non-Western countries, conducting one "democratic experiment" and "political transition" movement after another, striving to transform these countries using American-style democracy and political systems to seek maximum political benefit for itself.
Fourth, the wholesale swallowing of cultural interests. The United States long ago recognized that the conquest of a country and a nation lies not in occupation and slaughter, but in the fundamental interruption, destruction, and extinction of its language, history, and culture. It has put this understanding into practice, such as through the cultural genocide of Native Americans and the promotion of "democratic substitution" in non-Western countries. In modern society, the United States still maintains that "international relations are fundamentally a social and cultural construction dependent on language." Consequently, it treats the export of ideology and culture—centered on American-style democratic values—and the construction of discourse power as important means of suppressing and striking non-Western countries. It seizes the cultural and moral high ground, constructs a cultural and moral discourse system and discourse power, and destroys and extinguishes the traditional national cultures of non-Western countries. Gaining control over culture itself and its derivative interests has thus become an important tool for the United States.
There are three main methods by which the United States swallows the cultural interests of non-Western countries: First, coercive means. It links the economic development of non-Western countries to American-style democracy, ideology, and culture, forcing them to accept US culture. Through political isolation, economic blockades, and even military aggression and occupation, it compels non-Western countries to conduct "democratic experiments" and build "democratic models," forcibly promoting American culture, including American-style democratic thought and political systems. Second, conspiratorial means, primarily the pursuit of "peaceful evolution" [11]. It hides American-style democratic values and other ideological cultures within "academic exchanges," "scientific research," "humanistic exchanges," and mass media, promoting and disseminating them to the intellectual, academic, and educational circles as well as the general public of non-Western countries. Third, market means. Relying on advanced technology, the United States produces "cool" film and television products, distributing and broadcasting them in non-Western countries through movies, TV, art, and the internet. These attract many young people whose values are not yet fully formed and whose ability to discern is still weak. This both influences the formation of these youths' values and plunders a vast amount of cultural-economic interests.
Through the infiltration of ideological culture, such as democratic values, and the construction of discourse power, the United States influences and controls the masses in non-Western countries to achieve a conquest of their "spirit" and "soul." It dissolves and destroys their faith and belief in their own traditional thoughts, cultures, and democratic values, sweeping away their national consciousness and traditions. By replacing their native cultures with American culture, the United States realizes its long-desired construction of historical nihilism, national nihilism, and cultural nihilism [12] in these countries. Subsequently, the US establishes its own discourse system and discourse power over thought, culture, and democratic values in these non-Western countries, achieving ideological and cultural control over them.
IV. Masking its hypocrisy is the essence of the American-style democratic discourse system and the construction of its discourse power
The United States goes to great lengths to patch together a so-called "alliance of the democratic camp" and uses every means and method to construct a democratic discourse system and discourse power. The purpose is to suppress the democratic thoughts and practices of other nations, export and spread American-style democracy, and brainwash the people of the world. The essence is to mask the deceptive and hypocritical nature of its so-called "democracy."
First, it subverts the concept of democracy, changing "government by the people" into "government by rulers elected by the people." Whether in the West or the East, "democracy" is a relatively ancient term, and its original meaning was roughly the same, encompassing "rule by the people," "management by the people," and "popular sovereignty." To realize its own interests, the American bourgeois ruling class has tampered with the original meaning of democracy, emphasizing that democracy is a political method—it is "that institutional arrangement for arriving at political decisions in which individuals acquire the power to decide by means of a competitive struggle for the people's vote" [13]. Thus, democracy becomes "the people electing rulers," and the state is governed by "elected rulers." "Rule by the people" is replaced by "election by the people," and "the people" are transformed into "voters." The democratic rights of the people are manifested in the "one person, one vote" right to election and electoral activities. Those who engage in such activities are "democratic countries," while those who do not are "undemocratic," "autocratic," or "evil" countries. At this point, the rule over the state by the people is equated with the institutional arrangement of voting and elections; the transformation of the concept of democracy is complete.
Second, it is a money-democracy built on the foundation of private capital. In American "democratic elections," it appears on the surface that anyone can run for office and anyone can vote. However, the costs for presidential and congressional campaign rallies, advertising, travel, speeches, and even individual canvassing easily reach billions or tens of billions of dollars—sums that ordinary people simply cannot afford. Therefore, American "democratic elections" are essentially "money elections." They are a luxurious game controlled and toyed with by the wealthy, the powerful, and the media. It is an election show where "democracy becomes 'electocracy' [14] and elections become 'money-elections.'" To obtain campaign funds, candidates for president and congress use various means to raise capital. For instance, campaign donations, political lobbying, the "revolving door" between government and business, and even the transfer of interests, black money, and drug money [15] all enter the halls of power with great fanfare, taking the opportunity to be legalized. Undeniably, the investment of capital calculates a rate of return. After being elected, presidents and members of congress naturally "repay the favor" to their donors by seeking benefits for them. The "legal" exchange of interests is thus completed.
Third, it is a formal democracy named "one person, one vote" but actually consisting of "rule by a minority elite." American voters can participate in voting, but they cannot participate in the formulation of policies and regulations in the nation's political, economic, cultural, and social spheres. Government officials and members of congress are mostly comprised of bourgeois tycoons or hereditary elites. They hold sway over government organs and legislative and judicial bodies at all levels, formulating and executing laws, regulations, and national policies. "Checks and balances" are merely a game of "the left hand wrestling the right" among the "ruling elite." Voters only have a sense of presence during the campaign and voting period. Once the vote is over, the voters are cast aside and ignored. They do not participate in the formulation of major national policies or the specific process of governing the country. These powers are exercised by the government officials and members of congress they "elected" to "replace" them. The people are merely "background actors" or "props" in the ruling elite's "election game," summoned and dismissed at will. For the people, American democracy is merely democracy in form; in essence, it is the democracy of the ruling elite.
Fourth, it is a democracy of "veto politics" where partisan interests override national interests. American political parties represent different financial capitals, industries, sectors, and even regional bourgeoisies. Their mission is to fight for the interests of the bourgeois interest groups they represent. Bourgeois interest groups manipulate parties and legislators to support or veto bills that involve their group's interests. For example, the Republican Party resolutely vetoes the "healthcare bills" supported by the Democratic Party, while the Democratic Party vetoed the "border wall" bill supported by the Republicans. Under the manipulation of bourgeois interest groups, the US Congress and political parties have fallen into a state of "veto politics"—vetoing for the sake of vetoing. Regardless of whether a bill is beneficial to the country, as long as it is inconsistent with their own group's interests, they resolutely oppose and veto it. This even brings about a death loop of vetoes and "vetoes of vetoes," leading to fragmented, lengthy, and dilatory discussions and voting in Congress, which greatly reduces the efficiency of decision-making and legislation and increases the cost of policy-making. More seriously, some American political parties and legislators no longer consider or care about the national interest. They take "veto politics" as the sole principle of voting in Congress, obsessed with vetoing the other party's bills. This is a mindset and practice of "if you won't let me get things done, I resolutely won't let you get things done either." The political ecosystem within Congress consists of legislators quarreling every day and vetoing every matter.
Fifth, it is a democracy of privileged interests where the special interests of powerful groups are higher than the interests of the people. According to their different ownership of the means of production, the American bourgeoisie can be divided into the industrial bourgeoisie, the financial bourgeoisie, the agricultural bourgeoisie, and the military-industrial bourgeoisie. Each category can be further divided into large, medium, and small bourgeoisie based on scale, and can be subdivided by industry into different types of bourgeoisies, such as oil magnates, steel magnates, coal magnates, and media magnates. These bourgeoisies and their representatives control and monopolize American political power, forming different bourgeois elites and powerful clans [16] through hereditary succession.
The American bourgeois political parties serve as the spokespeople and "white gloves" [17] for these powerful elites and aristocratic clans. These elites and clans act as the "donors" and "brokers" for the various bourgeois parties, while those pushed to the front stage to represent the parties in elections for "presidents" and "members of Congress" are merely puppets on strings. They collude with one another, engaging in underhanded schemes [18] and employing every possible tactic to line their own pockets and satisfy their private interests at the expense of the people. The "ruling elites" of these powerful clans "legally" plunder the interests and wealth of the state and the people through bourgeois parties, parliaments, and governments. In governing the nation, they do not—and even disdain to—consider or attend to the interests and needs of the voters. They act solely from self-interest; as long as their own interests are well-tended, all is considered well. On the surface, the "one person, one vote" democratic election merely provides voters with an illusion of "political rights" and "political equality," which masks the deep inequality in the people's economic, social, cultural, and developmental rights. On one hand, bourgeois elites and clans "legally" acquire interests and wealth by formulating and implementing laws and policies favorable to themselves through the parties, Congress, and governments they control. On the other hand, they use discourses such as "democracy, freedom, equality, and the sacred inviolability of private property" to brainwash the masses, admonishing them that rights and wealth come from "diligence, equality, and accumulation." This forces the masses to accept reality, work hard for a "better future," and refrain from doubting or resisting the existing system of capitalist society. In essence, this maintains the special interests of the bourgeois elites and clans while requiring the masses to abandon the democratic rights they need to fight for their own interests.
V. The Methodology Behind the Construction of the American-Path Democratic Discourse System and Power of Discourse
The United States has constructed a relatively complete and mature methodological path for its democratic discourse system and power of discourse. Under the manipulation of capital elites and hereditary clans, bourgeois parties, governments, and parliaments provide full support and promotion. They formulate "laws" and policies, ensure ample financial subsidies, and encourage and guide the intelligentsia, academia, and mass media to concoct academic concepts, "innovate" ideological theories, establish research paradigms, and set evaluation standards. Through the transformation of rhetoric and the embellishment and obfuscation of language, they dress up American-path democracy in a "perfect," "universal," and "sacred" cloak. They construct a discourse system and power of discourse to export and disseminate to the whole world, ensuring that American-path democracy remains the sole authority [19].
First, the blurring of democratic ideals and the egoistic turn of democratic practice. Since the American bourgeois rulers and their thinkers recognized the impact and "danger" that traditional democratic connotations and practices posed to capitalism, they have racked their brains and spared no effort to hollow out and blur the ancient human democratic ideal of "rule by the people" and "popular sovereignty." They have abstracted what was originally concrete and nuanced democracy, inducing the masses to focus only on the external forms of democracy while ignoring or even forgetting the concrete practice of democracy, thereby serving their own monopoly interests.
The abstraction of concepts. The United States performs discourse packaging and "connotative switching" on American-path democracy. It extracts concrete connotations such as "popular sovereignty" and equates the concept of democracy with political civilizational ideas and values such as freedom, equality, human rights, and the rule of law, thereby hollowing out and abstracting the essence of democracy. The U.S. portrays the democratic ideal as the core content of American political civilization, confusing the boundaries between democracy and civilization, and claiming that democracy is democratization, and democratization is civilization. It asserts that American civilization is American-path democracy—which entails "equality for all" in politics and the possession of all rights to express political freedom. This induces the people to focus only on "procedural justice in elections" and "fairness in the voting process," without needing to consider or care about concrete meanings such as "governance by the people," democratic decision-making, democratic management, and democratic supervision.
The vulgarization of values. The United States equates the ideals and value pursuits of American-path democracy with the design of democratic election processes and campaign systems. It boasts of the "procedural justice" and "process fairness" of American elections, equating American-path democracy with "popular election"—that is, free campaigning, voluntary voting, "one person, one vote," equality for all, "natural rights," and political freedom. The practice of American-path democracy consists of administrative, legislative, and judicial officials and staff members, elected by voters via "one person, one vote," exercising democratic rights on behalf of the people. The voters' free right is completed with the casting of the ballot, after which all national management and social governance are handed over to "elected" state civil servants; the democratic "procedure" is thus deemed finished.
The sacralization of theory. The United States sacralizes and absolutizes American-path democratic theory. It uses "theoretical frameworks," "mathematical models," "research paradigms," and "empirical methods" created by American theorists and scholars to "scientifically demonstrate" and "practically prove" the "superiority," "correctness," "universality," and "rationality" of American-path democracy. Furthermore, it uses American theological theory to coat democracy in "holy oil," constantly singing sacred hymns to American-path democracy in the hope that it will eventually "ascend to immortality" [20] as a flawless entity, becoming the sole democratic ideology and political civilization of human society.
The phantomization of institutions. The United States turns American-path democratic institutions into a "universal" and "eternal" institutional model for human society, claiming it is the most advanced and perfect system to date and that the democratic systems of human society will find their end in the American-path democratic system. This system—including the campaign system, voting system, electoral system, representative system, universal suffrage, the party system, the "separation of powers," and the system of checks and balances—is said to represent the most advanced civilizational achievements of human development and must become the institutional arrangement universally adopted and commonly observed by human society.
Double standards. U.S. politicians never let the word "democracy" leave their lips, yet they apply double standards in its application, "using it when it suits them and discarding it when it does not." This is not about helping the world maintain and develop democracy, but about treating their own strategic interests as fundamental. If something aligns with their strategic interests, "even the undemocratic is democratic"; if it does not, "even the democratic is undemocratic." The United States possesses broad strategic interests across the globe; wherever the tentacles of its interests reach, the double standards of democracy follow.
The weaponization of practice. The United States uses the values of American-path democracy to build discourse hegemony, uses American-path democratic benchmarks to judge the democratic practices and institutional arrangements of non-Western countries, and formulates foreign democratic and cultural strategies and policies based on its own strategic interests. It cultivates clients worldwide and even forces non-Western countries to copy its own democratic model and political system through color revolutions, military aggression, and occupation. This has already caused so-called "democratic waves" and "political revolutions" in many countries and regions, leading them into turmoil and social chaos. This practice has become the infallible rule for American-path democratic discourse hegemony to exert influence and interference in non-Western countries; in itself, it is anti-democratic and anti-human.
Second, the "Democracy vs. Autocracy" binary opposition mindset. The U.S. government and academia sharply divide the world into two parts: "center-periphery," "advanced-primitive," "West-East," and "subject-object." They view the West as a developed, advanced, and civilized political, economic, and cultural region, while uniformly identifying the non-West as backward, ignorant, and primitive. In line with this "theory," the United States presents a benevolent, humane, civilized, and morally lofty face to the world, asserting it has the responsibility and obligation to "help" non-Western countries and regions—which, of course, requires first transforming their "backward" ideological culture and political systems, such as democracy and values.
The United States uses its own values, like democracy, as a template and yardstick. Anything inconsistent with American-path democracy is defined as "undemocratic," "fake democracy," or part of an "axis of evil," and their governments must be sanctioned, subverted, or transformed. Since the modern era, the United States has consistently maintained a "black and white" attitude, performing a binary division of the world's democratic cultures and systems into "democracy or autocracy." It uses academic and democratic discourse power to absolutize and sacralize American-path democracy while slandering, smearing, and suppressing non-Western democracy. It never considers that the cultural and civilizational histories of many nation-states far exceed that of the United States, nor does it consider drawing on or learning from the profound connotations and deep thoughts of democratic and other ideological cultures created by other nations to achieve cultural creation and innovation and jointly raise the civilizational level of all humanity. The American "democracy-autocracy" binary mindset and method are merely means of utilizing first-mover advantages and discourse hegemony to maintain its monopoly position and interests in the world's politics and economy.
Third, the "double-faced" nature of global governance of ideological and cultural values such as democracy. The United States spares no effort in promoting the global expansion and governance of American-path democracy and its associated ideological values. However, in this endeavor, the U.S. exhibits a clear duality in its attitudes and methods toward domestic versus international affairs.
Domestic democratic governance emphasizes the "protection of private property rights." Since bourgeois theorists shouted the slogan "private property is sacred and inviolable," this principle—and its subsequent derivation and expansion into broader fields—has become one of the core contents of American "democracy, freedom, equality, and the rule of law." Once American bourgeois thinkers and theorists successfully shifted the initial ideal and connotation of "democracy" to the form of "one person, one vote" elections, the "protection of private property rights" rose to be the highest and primary democratic right of the masses. The American bourgeois government, along with the intellectual sphere and mass media, works at full throttle to brainwash the masses, telling them that the most important democratic right they possess is the "protection of private property rights." Everyone is told to accept the "equal" and "legal" right to property protection and to use the rule of law to protect their interests. To protect private property and ruling interests, American government officials and members of Congress never show mercy to the "voters" to whom they made extravagant promises during campaigns. When a Black American was "knelt to death" or shot in the street by white police, no members of Congress were seen proposing democratic or human rights bills to protect Black lives. When over a million Americans died of COVID-19 infection, no Congress or government was seen proposing democratic motions or policies to protect the people's right to life. Yet, as soon as people's demonstrations or assemblies threaten the interests of the ruling class, relevant "private property protection" bills are quickly passed by Congress, approved, and enforced.
Forced implementation of democracy, freedom, and human rights protections in non-Western countries. The United States possesses a paranoid fanaticism and worship of American-path democracy, eager to use it to unify the world and establish American-path democratic systems in non-Western nations. In conducting "democratic experiments" or establishing "democratic models" in these countries, the U.S. focuses only on the external forms of democracy, such as "free campaigning," "fair voting," and "human rights protection," forcing these countries to grant the people full "electoral freedom" and "human rights protection." Utilizing its powerful democratic discourse power, mass media, the internet, and its political, economic, and military strength, the U.S. launches an ideological bombardment of "democracy, freedom, and human rights" on non-Western countries. It even employs political and economic sanctions and military deterrence to threaten and force them to abolish "autocratic systems" to ensure the people enjoy full American-path "democracy, freedom, equality, and human rights."
The United States uses means such as democracy, freedom, and human rights to tear apart public opinion and social strata in non-Western countries, creating confrontation among the people. It takes this opportunity to cultivate pro-American individuals, parties, and classes, nurturing traitors and a "comprador" class to serve as "white gloves" and spokespeople for American capital's control and monopoly of the national economic lifelines. Ultimately, this achieves control and enslavement of non-Western countries, turning them into appendages of the United States to facilitate the plunder and embezzlement of the interests of non-Western states and their peoples.
Fourth, the innovation of academic discourse conceals American-style democratic values and ideology. Since the modern era, American social sciences have made significant strides. Academic and theoretical circles have demonstrated a keen interest in learning from and borrowing research methods and academic achievements from other disciplines—and even the natural sciences—such as empirical research, quantitative analysis, statistical data, and the construction of mathematical models. They have innovated and created "normative and scientific" "research paradigms" and "analytical methods." Consequently, research methods and analytical paradigms such as postmodernism, post-positivism, deconstructionism, criticism, and post-structuralism have emerged in succession. Simultaneously, various social science disciplines have shown a trend of significant cross-pollination and mutual penetration, generating a batch of emerging interdisciplinary and marginal subjects. Using these emerging "research paradigms" and "theoretical frameworks," American scholars have constructed a vast array of new academic concepts, theories, and disciplines. They have created theories such as the "Clash of Civilizations," Democratic Peace Theory, the "End of History," the Thucydides Trap [21], Hegemonic Stability Theory, the Middle-Income Trap, as well as doctrines like the sanctity of private property, the rational economic man, and neoliberal globalization. These theories and doctrines have permeated almost all humanities and social sciences—including economics, political science, sociology, management, history, law, literature, education, and psychology—driving these disciplines to produce more innovative theoretical results and research methods. Once generated, these theoretical doctrines and research methods were widely disseminated throughout non-Western countries, propelled by America’s formidable power, becoming hotspots for learning and research within their intellectual, academic, and even educational circles.
The theories and doctrines established by American academic and theoretical circles possess a certain degree of innovation and applicability; they allow for empirical research and quantitative analysis, thereby promoting the progress and development of the human social sciences. However, the United States also uses this opportunity to maintain a firm grip on discourse power over academia, disciplines, and theoretical innovation. "Power produces knowledge... power and knowledge directly imply one another" [22]. Through academic discourse hegemony, the United States transforms and "upgrades" its values and ideology regarding democracy, creating "legitimate," "just," and "equal" forms of democratic elections, thereby constructing a hegemony of democratic discourse. The United States submerges and hides its own democratic values and ideological culture within these discourse powers, infiltrating and peddling them to non-Western countries. Some scholars in non-Western countries, when studying Western academic theory and culture, are influenced by the relative backwardness of their own countries and the presupposition that Western countries are developed and "advanced." Consequently, they are prone to adopting a "take-ism" [23] attitude of wholesale acceptance, consciously or unconsciously acting as promoters for the infiltration and brainwashing of their own people with American-style democratic values and ideology, directly and indirectly assisting in the construction of American democratic discourse hegemony.
The United States exerts every effort to construct this democratic discourse hegemony and uses it as a tool to smear, slander, and suppress the traditional democratic thought, culture, and systems of non-Western countries, wishing for nothing more than to destroy and eliminate them. It attempts to establish American-style democratic values and ideology as the sole supreme authority [24], using them to unify the thoughts of the world’s people and build an exclusive world order and set of rules based solely on American values. While learning and introducing modern American modes of production, some individuals in non-Western countries also learn, absorb, and introduce American thought, culture, academic theories, and even values. Led and induced by the American presupposition of its own cultural superiority, it is very easy to fall into the "discourse trap" of American democratic culture, accepting American teachings without discrimination or reservation. Given the advantage of American discourse power, non-Western countries must strive to protect their own democratic values and traditional cultures and engage in a contest and struggle against American democratic discourse power. This requires deconstructing the core components of the construction of American democratic discourse power—its theoretical basis, purpose, methods, pathways, and essence. It necessitates analyzing the hypocrisy, falsity, and deceptiveness of its democratic connotations and discourse hegemony, identifying its flaws and drawbacks, and engaging in targeted exposure and struggle to build a national democratic substance and institutional system that is innovative, suited to the times, and appropriate for their own national conditions and developmental realities.