Chai Shangjin and Lian Ying: Historical Evolution and Development Trends of Socialist Movements in West Asia and North Africa
The more than 20 countries in the West Asia and North Africa region all profess Islam and use Arabic as their common language; hence, the region is also known as the Arab region. In recent years, against the backdrop of the declining influence of nationalism and political Islamic forces, Arab leftist parties have begun to gain strength. Communist parties in countries such as Turkey, Iraq, and Egypt have become active, emerging as prominent players with expanding influence. The vitality of socialist trends in Arab countries persists, and "Looking East" has become a prevailing trend.
I. The Prevalence and Characteristics of Arab Socialism
Arab socialism is a form of socialism practiced by some Arab states, grounded in Islam and aimed at the unification of the Arab nation. It first appeared in the 1940s, with its primary representative being Michel Aflaq, the founder of the Arab Ba'ath Socialist Party. In his 1944 book The Attitude of Arab Socialism Toward Communism, co-authored with Salah al-Din al-Bitar, he first proposed the theoretical viewpoints of Arab socialism. He described socialism as a "third way" between communism and capitalism, emphasizing that a socialist revolution must first be a national revolution, and that national revolution inevitably leads to socialism. He argued that Islamic doctrine contains socialist elements and advocated for achieving social equality through class cooperation. Elias Falleh, a theorist of the Iraqi Ba'ath Party, provided a more systematic exposition of Arab socialism. He believed its ideological sources were complex, mainly comprising Islamism, Arabism, and Marxism. He argued that the diversity of problems and the complexity of contradictions—including colonialism, imperialism, Zionism, economic backwardness, social underdevelopment, fragmentation, and oil issues—resulted in socialism being conducted within the overall scope of the national liberation struggle. Arab nationalism includes national liberation, national unity, and socialist content. Arab socialism integrates mutually exclusive, conflicting, and competing traditional religious thoughts and conservative nationalism with modern socialist ideas. It is both rooted in national and historical heritage and possesses a revolutionary class content. Arab socialism rejects transcendental schemes detached from Arab reality and refuses to blindly follow a single model of socialism, thereby avoiding mechanical application and absolutism.
Beginning in the 1950s, several Arab countries where nationalist parties held power began declaring a path of development distinct from capitalism. Arab states such as Egypt, Syria, Iraq, Algeria, Sudan, Libya, and Tunisia successively announced the implementation of socialism. Through measures such as nationalization, land reform, and cooperatization, these countries established mixed economic systems with the state-owned economy as the mainstay, coexisting with cooperative and private sectors. Simultaneously, they imposed certain restrictions on the private economy to prevent it from harming the socialist system or national interests, while focusing on improving social welfare and raising the people's standard of living. Representative figures included Gamal Abdel Nasser of Egypt, Ahmed Ben Bella and Houari Boumédiène of Algeria, Hafez al-Assad of Syria, Saddam Hussein of Iraq, Muammar Gaddafi of Libya, and Habib Bourguiba of Tunisia.
Because Arab countries were influenced by various socialist trends from their metropolitan colonizers during the colonial period, and as the international communist movement reached its peak after World War II, nationalist parties in Arab countries generally embraced socialism. Examples include the Arab Ba'ath Socialist Party, Palestinian revolutionary organizations, the Algerian Democratic Front, the Yemeni Socialist Party, the Lebanese Progressive Socialist Party, and the Socialist Action Party. Some military figures and armed organizations that came to power through military coups also raised the banner of socialism, and some bourgeois parties adopted socialist names. For instance, after coming to power via a coup in 1969, Gaddafi immediately declared the "construction of a socialist Libya," implementing a "standard socialism" "based on Islam and Arabism." Thus, Arab socialism was diverse and could be described as a "hodgepodge." While various party organizations and political figures claimed to believe in socialism, their intentions differed; the "socialist" label often diverged significantly from reality, frequently serving as a cover for underlying racism, nationalism, and religious agendas.
Although there are numerous schools of Arab socialism with diverse and pluralistic propositions, they share similar ideological foundations and value pursuits, manifested primarily in the following aspects:
First, Arab socialism takes the realization of Arab national liberation and unification as a vital objective.
The countries of West Asia and North Africa were historically colonies of European powers such as Britain and France. After embarking on the path of national liberation and independence, these countries harbored deep resentment toward imperialism and capitalism while looking with great favor upon socialism. Following the Suez War [1], Egyptian President Nasser firmly believed that imperialist countries pursued colonial policies to cruelly exploit and oppress the people of colonial nations, bringing poverty and disaster to Arab states. He argued that Arab countries could not achieve economic and industrial development by relying on the capitalist system; thus, socialism was the inevitable choice for the Arab world. He further believed that to avoid falling back into the painful abyss of colonization, the Arab world must unite as one to resist imperialist aggression and interference, reject capitalism, and follow the path of Arab socialism. Based on this conviction, Nasser resolutely opposed imperialism, colonialism, racism, and Zionism, supported the liberation struggle of the Palestinian people, and advocated achieving the unity of the Arab and Islamic worlds through socialism. Simultaneously, he advocated for a one-party political system, designating the Arab Socialist Union as the sole legal party; achieving the unity of the Arab world was the primary political goal of this union. Nasser’s socialist propositions were put into practice in Egypt, Sudan, and Libya, and exerted significant influence on the promotion of Ba'athist socialism in countries like Syria and Iraq.
Since the mid-20th century, the response to the Middle East peace issue has been a litmus test for Arab socialism. Handling the contradictions and conflicts between Palestine and Israel has been a severe trial for all types of socialist seekers. This is because the mission of Arab socialism is to achieve Arab national unity and Arab national rejuvenation; without opposing Zionism and enabling Palestinians to return to their homes, Arab socialism would be mere empty talk. Arab national unity was the fundamental goal pursued by the Arab Ba'ath Socialist Party; however, due to the narrowness of nationalism, nationalist parties, including the Ba'ath Party, did not and could not truly achieve this goal. In March 1979, Egypt and Israel officially signed a peace treaty, leading to questions regarding Arab nationalism. Consequently, Arab socialism—which sought Arab solidarity and unity—began to decline, and in some cases, vanished altogether.
On the political stage of West Asian and North African countries in the 20th century, communist and leftist parties once played an irreplaceable role, making important contributions to national independence and people's liberation. "Their importance and influence were far greater than their membership numbers suggested." In October 1956, when the Suez War broke out, the Egyptian Communist Party and other leftist organizations did not seize the opportunity to overthrow the Nasser government (which had been suppressed communism); instead, they called on the people of the whole country to unite against the British and French aggressors and defend the country to the death. Because the Communist Party and the independent left played a major leading role in the people's resistance movement, the Nasser government gradually eased its relations with the Communist Party and released most communist political prisoners.
Currently, in response to the complex situation in the region, leftist parties in Arab countries are analyzing the root causes of the Middle East problem and seeking strategies for regional peace and their own development. However, the exploration of socialism by the Arab left focuses mainly on the unity and cooperation of the Arab world in jointly opposing U.S. imperialist aggression and interference. They believe that "the top priority is to achieve liberation and unity" and that "if national unity is not guaranteed, the realization of socialism is out of the question."
Second, Arab socialism possesses a very strong nationalist orientation.
From the promotion of socialism in Arab countries in the past to the pursuit of socialism by leftist parties today, the foundation has essentially been Islam and Arab nationalism; nationalism is its unchanging soul. During the period when Arab socialism flourished in the 20th century, Arab national unity and rejuvenation were the primary tasks, while socialism was the means to achieve these goals. Communist and leftist parties played a vanguard role in leading movements to resist imperialism and colonialism, and played a non-negligible role in safeguarding the interests of the people and in building and developing the Arab region.
After the Cold War, the United States became the sole superpower and attempted to transform the Middle East by promoting Western-style democracy. With U.S. support, Zionism and extreme religious ideologies continuously harassed the Arab region, exacerbating religious contradictions and regional conflicts. The "Arab Spring" [2] not only led to regime changes in several "authoritarian states" but also resulted in the prevalence of Islamic fundamentalist extremism and the rapid rise of Islamic political parties. These religious parties often fly the flag of nationalism but care only about the interests and privileges of their own tribes or regions, adopting exclusionary or even hostile attitudes toward others, which has triggered fierce inter-tribal and inter-regional conflicts. As Islamic extremist forces in West Asia and North Africa have grown stronger, the exploration of socialism by leftist forces in the Arab region has entered a new stage, where nationalist characteristics have become even more prominent.
Third, Arab socialism is based on Islam, opposes exploitation, and calls for the establishment of an equal, just, and happy society where there is no exploitation of man by man.
To better survive and develop, leftist parties in Arab states generally emphasize proceeding from the reality of Islamic countries and respecting Islamic faith. They advocate promoting the socialist ideology of fairness, justice, and equality for all by disseminating Islamic doctrine. Most leftist parties in Arab countries believe that Islamic doctrine contains socialist elements; they see common ground between Islamic scriptural teachings on fairness, justice, and rewarding good while punishing evil, and the socialist ideology of eliminating class exploitation and oppression while promoting equality. However, for a long time, "secular regimes" practicing Arab socialism mostly promoted one-party systems and "authoritarian politics," implementing "high-pressure" policies against fundamentalist Islamic movements that insisted on the integration of church and state. Although the leftist parties in Arab countries believe in Islam, they oppose Islamic fundamentalism and religious extremist parties; Arab socialism has consistently maintained a stance against Islamic fundamentalism. This contradiction between fundamentalism and secularism—and between political Islam and Arab socialism—has not only existed for a long time but has sometimes led to violent conflicts.
Because some countries in the Arab region regard communism as a foreign ideology that does not suit their national conditions or the character and traditions of the Arab people, they have strictly banned communist activities. Consequently, some leftist parties no longer mention Marxism. They believe that Marxism’s insistence on atheism does not fit Arab reality and that only by adapting to Islam can socialism be better implemented. In the current period of turbulent political transition, this choice by leftist parties in Arab countries has its objective necessity, and one should not deny their exploration and practice of socialism because of it.
II. The Historical Evolution of Leftist Parties in Arab Countries
The leftist parties in the Arab countries of West Asia and North Africa can be roughly divided into three categories: communist parties, socialist parties, and nationalist parties. Due to the influence of deep religious traditions and complex ethnic relations, communist and leftist parties in this region have long been marginalized and suppressed by governments. Their exploration of the socialist road has been arduous and full of setbacks, and they have consistently struggled to become the dominant political force in their nations. The communist movement in the Arab region has a long history. After the 1920s, under the influence and support of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, communist parties were successively established in countries such as Egypt, Lebanon, Syria, Iraq, and Palestine, and communist groups appeared in other nations. They were the vanguard of anti-imperialist and anti-colonial struggles and played an important role in their respective national liberation movements. Although the communist parties in the Arab region were founded relatively early and have a long history, they remained in an illegal status for a long time, and their strength has generally remained weak.
(1) Parties of a Marxist Nature
Influenced by the Russian October Revolution, progressive intellectuals in several Islamic countries began to accept socialism during their struggle for national liberation and independence. They established Marxist-inclined parties modeled after the Russian proletarian vanguard. In October 1919, the Comintern passed a resolution calling for the establishment of Communist Parties in the Muslim world, and subsequently began actively promoting communist movements in colonial countries.
In March 1919, leftists who split from the Palestine Jewish Workers' Party established the Communist Party of Israel (originally named the Socialist Workers' Party of Palestine). In April 1921, the party changed its name to the Communist Party of Palestine and joined the Comintern. The Communist Party of Israel describes itself as a patriotic and internationalist party of both Jews and Arabs, guided by Marxism-Leninism.
Under the influence of the Comintern around 1920, various Egyptian intellectuals exploring ways to save the nation established a progressive group dedicated to studying diverse socialist ideologies. This group formed the basis of the Egyptian Socialist Party in July 1922, which was renamed the Egyptian Communist Party (ECP) in 1923. Because the ECP advocated for achieving socialism through national democratic revolution, it was quickly declared an illegal organization and spent long periods underground. During World War II, the party split into several factions, which later merged into the Egyptian Communist Party, the Unified Egyptian Communist Party, and the Workers' and Peasants' Communist Party. In December 1957, these three merged into the ECP and publicly declared support for the Nasser government. In July 1964, the party announced its own dissolution, with members joining the then-ruling Arab Socialist Union as individuals. The party was re-established in 1975, but under the suppression of the Sadat and subsequent Mubarak regimes, its activities remained underground, and it was banned from public political life and elections. Following the overthrow of the Mubarak regime on February 11, 2011, the ECP was able to resume public activities and participated in several parliamentary elections, though it failed to win seats. Besides the ECP, fragmented small communist factions exist in Egypt, such as Trotskyist groups influenced by the Fourth International and Maoist groups that emerged during the Sino-Soviet split.
From the 1920s to the 1930s, communist parties appeared in several Arab and regional countries, including the Communist Party of Iran (founded June 1920, banned by the Shah in 1931, and restored in September 1941 as the Tudeh Party of Iran), the Communist Party of Cyprus (founded August 1926, later renamed the Progressive Party of Working People), the Lebanese Communist Party (founded October 1924), the Syrian Communist Party (founded October 1924), and the Iraqi Communist Party (founded March 1934). At the time, these parties all advocated against imperialism and colonialism, supported national liberation struggles, and maintained close ties with the Communist Party of the Soviet Union.
After World War II, many developing countries broke free from colonial rule. During this period, their party systems tended to mimic either Western multi-party systems or the Soviet one-party model. In multi-party states, various parties gained space to survive, and left-wing parties professing socialism began to develop; even in monarchies, communist or left-wing parties were established.
Jordan is a hereditary monarchy where power is highly concentrated in the King as head of state and commander-in-chief. Jordan banned political party activity from its independence in 1946 until 1991, when it lifted the ban and implemented a multi-party system; there are currently about 18 parties. The Jordanian Communist Party was founded in May 1951 and remained illegal for a long time before becoming a legal party in January 1993. Domestically, it advocates for defending national independence, maintaining political pluralism, and strengthening economic independence; externally, it advocates for national sovereignty and ethnic independence, the realization of Arab unity, and the strengthening of mutual aid among the world's peoples. Currently, it has 1,500 public members—primarily intellectuals, workers, peasants, writers, and trade unionists—and maintains friendly exchanges with the Communist Party of China.
The Workers' Party of Turkey, founded in 1961, identifies as the party of the working class, rural laborers, and socialist intellectuals, with Marxism-Leninism-Mao Zedong Thought as its guiding ideology. Its mission is to establish a people's democratic regime through democratic revolution, eventually realizing socialism. Its goal is to complete the Kemalist Revolution [3] and the national democratic revolution. In October 1988, it briefly merged with the Communist Party of Turkey to form the United Communist Party of Turkey, which was banned by the Constitutional Court in July 1991 for "violating constitutional provisions."
The Palestinian Communist Party was founded in February 1982, formed by the merger of members from Palestinian communist organizations in the West Bank and Gaza Strip, Palestinian communists from the Jordanian Communist Party’s external organizations, and Palestinian communists in other countries. It held its Second National Congress in late October 1991, adopting a new program and constitution, electing new central leadership, and renaming itself the Palestinian People's Party.
Following the drastic changes in the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe, the strength of Communist and left-wing parties in the West Asia and North Africa (WANA) region declined, and the trend of Islamic Socialism [4] waned. These parties felt adrift regarding how to uphold Marxism and the future direction of the world socialist movement.
(2) Socialist-Oriented Parties
Due to the post-WWII establishment of socialist states and the active role played by communist parties during the war, communism in the WANA region experienced a surge. Nationalist and socialist parties with Arab Socialist characteristics emerged, and the survival environment for communist parties improved.
Founded in 1943 as the Moroccan Communist Party, the Party of Progress and Socialism adopted its current name in 1974. Its long-term program is the realization of socialism, while its current mission is to build a unified, prosperous, democratic Morocco governed by the rule of law. It is a politically influential communist party in the Arab world and is currently a member of the Moroccan governing coalition, ranking eighth and tenth in the House of Representatives and the House of Councilors, respectively. It established relations with the CPC in 1956, which were interrupted in 1966 and restored in 1985, maintaining good ties today.
The Socialist Union of Popular Forces (Morocco) was founded in January 1975 and legalized in December of that year. Representing the interests of the petty bourgeoisie and intellectuals, it holds significant influence among students and workers. Its platform is "Liberation, Democracy, and Socialism." A member of the Socialist International, it won 26 seats in the October 2016 parliamentary elections, leading among left-wing parties. It established relations with the CPC in the early 1980s.
The Palestinian People's Party, formerly the Palestinian Communist Party (founded Feb 1982), adopted its current name in October 1991. It has participated in the Palestinian national unity government and maintains a small armed force. It restored relations with the CPC in 2005. Its program identifies it as a socialist party dedicated to building a socialism that accords with Palestinian realities.
The Palestinian People's Struggle Front was founded in 1967 and joined the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) in 1971. It is an important Palestinian left-wing party that adheres to Marxism-Leninism.
The Progressive Socialist Party (Lebanon), founded in May 1949, is a social-democratic party with a background in the Druze [5] sect of Islam. It joined the Socialist International in 1980. The party holds a significant position in Lebanese politics; it was founded by Kamal Joumblatt and is currently chaired by his son, Walid Joumblatt. Walid was elected Vice President of the Socialist International at its 16th Congress in April 1983 and re-elected at the 17th and 18th Congresses. The party’s mission is to "use all legal means to establish a stable, just, happy, free, and peaceful society on a truly democratic basis," viewing socialism as the means to achieve this goal.
(3) Nationalist-Oriented Parties
"Nationalist party" is a complex concept, generally referring to all parties in developing countries other than communist parties. These nationalist parties are remarkably diverse: they are influenced by both Western democratic politics and scientific socialism; they draw on Western party models while valuing the experience of Chinese party politics; they are influenced by social democracy as well as feudal, ethnic, or religious factors. They include mature parties tested by decades of political struggle as well as newly formed ones. They possess both regional characteristics and distinct national traits. Nationalist parties rose rapidly in the early post-WWII period, with the primary goal of further shedding colonial influence to build independent nation-states. Guided by Nasserism [6], they were dedicated to the unity and prosperity of the Arab world.
Left-wing nationalist parties include: the National Liberation Front (Algeria); the Palestinian People's Struggle Front (originally under the PFLP, becoming independent in 1967 and joining the PLO in 1971); and the Democratic Front for the Liberation of Palestine (which split from the PFLP in 1968, becoming the third-largest political organization in the PLO, with left-leaning, radical views and opposition to the Oslo Accords).
The National Liberation Front (FLN) of Algeria was founded in August 1954 and became the ruling party after independence in July 1962. In December 1991, it lost its ruling position in Algeria's first multi-party legislative elections but returned to power after winning the May 2002 elections. Politically, it advocates for Islam as the state religion, viewing Arab-Islamic culture as the ideological foundation for Algerian development and national unity. It emphasizes "Arabization" in language and culture, supports market economy development, but opposes land privatization.
The Patriotic Democratic Unified Party (Tunisia) was founded in 1975, originating from the Tunisian left-wing student movement. After gaining legal status in 2011, it became the Patriotic Democratic Unified Movement before adopting its current name in 2012. Adhering to Marxism-Leninism, it is the second-largest force within the Popular Front, a coalition of Tunisian left-wing parties.
The Front of Democratic Forces (Morocco) was founded in July 1997. it advocates for Moroccan sovereignty and territorial integrity while emphasizing Morocco’s cultural identity and openness. It calls for the legal recognition of the Berber language, the appropriate use of Hebrew in political life, and the protection of the political rights of citizens living abroad.
The National Progressive Unionist Party (Egypt) began as the National Progressive Forum in 1975, acting as a left-wing political bloc for individuals with socialist, communist, Nasserist, nationalist, and liberal views; it adopted its current name in November 1976. It has long been an opposition party, winning one seat in the 2015 parliamentary elections.
The Arab Democratic Nasserist Party was founded in April 1992. As an Egyptian Nasserist left-wing party, it advocates for a socialist path, the establishment of an independent national economic system, and Arab unity.
All three categories of parties mentioned above claim to serve the working masses, safeguard social justice, and achieve national peace, security, and sustainable development. However, they differ in guiding ideology, policy positions, and methods of struggle. While Communist parties profess Marxism-Leninism, their programs rarely elaborate on their specific understanding of Marxism, and some have even dogmatized the theory. There are also divisions in their understanding of "traditional socialism." For a long time, many could not break free from Soviet control, lacked theoretical innovation, and suffered from ideological rigidity. They lacked a sufficient understanding of their own national conditions and wavered on national issues, which "strained relations with many nationalist factions," ultimately severely hindering their own development. Many other socialist parties lean toward social democracy. For example, the Constitutional Democratic Rally of Tunisia and the National Democratic Party of Egypt both joined the Socialist International but collapsed during the "Arab Spring."
III. The Development of Left-wing Parties in Arab Countries since the "Arab Spring"
After the Cold War, the international situation and the global political landscape underwent profound changes and adjustments. Under the impact of the Western-led tide of "democratization," the party systems of developing countries changed drastically. Nearly 80 developing countries eventually abandoned one-party or no-party systems and explicitly announced a transition to Western-style multi-party systems. Additionally, some countries saw military regimes "return power to the people" and restore multi-party systems. In the "power vacuum" caused by the "Arab Spring" beginning in late 2010, the major Communist and left-wing parties in the Arab region took the opportunity to bolster their influence by voicing support for revolutions and the people's democratic struggles. Simultaneously, they sought to develop and grow their own strength, accumulating the necessary power to participate in or seek state power and national construction.
(1) Egyptian left-wing forces play an active role in the post-Mubarak era
Following the outbreak of the "January 25 Revolution" in Egypt in 2011, left-wing groups such as the Egyptian Communist Party, the Trotskyist group "Revolutionary Socialists," and the "April 6 Youth Movement" [7] played a certain role in mobilizing protest actions. After the Mubarak regime was overthrown in February 2011, the Egyptian Communist Party was able to resume public activities. On February 11, 2011, the Egyptian Communist Party issued a statement calling for the formation of a coalition government during the transition period, the convening of a constituent assembly to draft a new constitution, and the punishment of those responsible for the violent suppression of the people. On May 9, 2011, four communist organizations—the Egyptian Communist Party, the Workers and Peasants Democratic Party, the Socialist Party, and the Revolutionary Socialists—merged to form the Socialist Popular Alliance Party. This party alliance had a total of 5,000 members, meeting the Egyptian government’s requirements for legal party registration; it is the only legally registered communist party in Egypt. Between 2011 and 2012, the Socialist Popular Alliance Party participated in the Egyptian parliamentary elections as part of the "Alliance to Continue the Revolution," a campaign coalition formed with the Egyptian People’s Party and the Revolutionary Youth Coalition, but it failed to win any seats. It also failed to secure seats in the 2015 parliamentary elections. Egyptian communists played an active role both in the struggle to overthrow the Mubarak regime and in the Egyptian political arena of the post-Mubarak era.
The Egyptian Socialist Party, founded in 2011, believes in socialism, defends national independence, and opposes Israeli Zionism and the occupation of Palestinian territories. Samir Amin [8], a representative figure of contemporary Neo-Marxism, was one of the party's founders. The party's current General Secretary, Ahmed Shaban, has participated in several forums hosted by the Communist Party of China (CPC). He emphasizes strengthening relations with the CPC, describing it as the world's largest, longest-standing, most experienced, and most capable ruling party.
(2) Tunisian left-wing parties encounter opportunities for development
At the end of 2010, the Ben Ali regime, which had ruled Tunisia for over 30 years, collapsed amid popular protests. The former ruling party, the Constitutional Democratic Rally, was banned, and prohibitions on political parties were completely lifted. Opposition parties from the old regime period gained legal status, and various parties and political organizations rose with the tide. Left-wing political forces that had long been banned, such as the Tunisian Communist Party, leveraged the situation to recover, and a large number of new parties emerged. Tunisia entered a period of political reconstruction. The Popular Front for the Realization of the Objectives of the Revolution, established in October 2012, is a Tunisian left-wing party alliance comprising nine parties, including the Workers’ Party (formerly the Tunisian Workers' Communist Party), the Democratic Patriots’ Unified Party, and the League of the Leftist Workers. Its goals are to consolidate Tunisian left-wing forces, strengthen the overall power of left-wing parties in Tunisia’s general elections, resolutely oppose religious extremism and terrorism, reform the judicial system, and fully guarantee human rights. The alliance was the fourth-largest political force in the Tunisian parliament (with 15 seats) and the largest opposition bloc. The Workers’ Party, which grew out of the "Communists" movement founded in 1985, is a Tunisian Marxist-Leninist and Trotskyist party. Its main members are workers, democrats, youth, and progressive women. It advocates for the complete elimination of capitalism, authoritarianism, and imperialism, along with the exploitation, oppression, and discrimination they bring. It adopted its current name in February 2011, joined the Popular Front in October 2012, and holds one parliamentary seat. The Democratic Patriots’ Unified Party was founded in 1975, originating from the Tunisian left-wing student movement. It gained legal status in 2011 as the Democratic Patriots’ Unified Movement and adopted its current name in 2012. The party adheres to Marxism-Leninism and is the second-largest political force within the Popular Front. The People's Current is a nationalist party founded in 2013 that adheres to Nasserism [9] under the slogan "Freedom, Socialism, Unity"; it joined the Popular Front in 2014.
(3) Iraqi left-wing parties actively participate in post-war political reconstruction
As national, multi-ethnic parties, various factions of the Iraqi left advocate for the unity of all ethnic groups to collectively carry out the socialist struggle. Consequently, they came into conflict with the Ba'ath Party—a narrow Arab nationalist party—and were long regarded as illegal. After the overthrow of the Saddam regime in 2003, left-wing parties such as the Iraqi Communist Party, the Kurdistan Communist Party–Iraq, and the Kurdistan Toilers' Party began public activities. They have actively participated in post-war political reconstruction and achieved rapid development.
The Iraqi Communist Party participates in the country's political life by contesting elections for the National Assembly. Allying with other parties, it has actively promoted and participated in parliamentary elections, winning 25 seats in the first parliamentary election. In the elections held in May 2018, the party participated in the "Sairun" (Forward) Alliance led by the Sadr movement [10], winning two seats. Party leaders have served in positions such as Deputy Foreign Minister. The Iraqi Communist Party currently has nearly 20,000 members and over 200,000 supporters. It has accumulated rich experience in electioneering and holds ministerial seats in both the new Iraqi government and the Kurdistan Regional Government. Recently, the Iraqi Communist Party formulated a new party program and constitution based on the new situation, emphasizing the need to uphold the socialist direction, strengthen unity and cooperation with other patriotic forces, and actively participate in election activities to play an important role in achieving peace and stability in Iraq at an early date.
The Kurdistan branch of the Iraqi Communist Party established the Kurdistan Communist Party–Iraq in 1993. This party advocates for a peaceful resolution to various issues in Iraq's political transition process, protects Kurdish interests, and strives for the equal participation of all forces in national governance and construction. It advocates for the establishment of an Iraq in which both Arabs and Kurds enjoy full rights. The Kurdistan Communist Party maintains good relations with other communist parties in Iraq and the region and maintains exchanges with the CPC. Although it holds only one seat in parliament, its influence and importance to the region far exceed its electoral performance.
With the struggle and cooperation of left-wing forces such as the Iraqi Communist Party and the Kurdistan Communist Party, the current Iraqi government has made significant progress in the counter-terrorism war against the "Islamic State" extremist organization. In June 2016, Iraqi government forces launched military operations to liberate Mosul, recapturing the Great Mosque of al-Nuri, the stronghold of the "Islamic State." In July 2017, Mosul, Iraq's second-largest city and a strategic stronghold controlled by the "Islamic State" for three years, was completely liberated. The Iraqi counter-terrorism effort is a people's war that cannot succeed without the support and participation of left-wing parties. In Iraq's future political reconstruction, left-wing forces are expected to play an even greater role.
(4) The Syrian Communist Party becomes a constructive opposition party
There are currently two communist organizations in Syria: the Syrian Communist Party (Unified) and the Syrian Communist Party. Both originated from the Syrian Communist Party founded in October 1924. Some leaders, including Yusuf Faisal, then Deputy General Secretary, were marginalized from the new central leadership due to disagreements with General Secretary Khalid Bakdash regarding election issues at the Sixth Congress. Faisal and others formed a new party in January 1987, continuing to use the name Syrian Communist Party and holding their own Sixth Congress, where Faisal was elected General Secretary. To distinguish the two factions, it became customary to refer to the party led by Faisal as the Syrian Communist Party (Faisal faction) and the one led by Bakdash as the Syrian Communist Party (Bakdash faction). In March 2011, the Syrian Communist Party (Faisal faction) held its 11th Congress and decided to change its name to the Syrian Communist Party (Unified). In the 2012 Syrian parliamentary elections, the party won 3 of the 250 seats. Yusuf Faisal passed away in June 2012, and Hanin Nimr took over as party chairman. At the invitation of the CPC, Nimr visited China in March 2016 as part of a delegation of left-wing parties from Arab countries. Nimr is friendly toward China and has spoken out in the media multiple times to support the Chinese government’s positions on Hong Kong, Xinjiang, and the fight against the COVID-19 pandemic.
Both the Syrian Communist Party and the Syrian Communist Party (Unified) take a clear stand against the extremist terrorist organization "Islamic State." In 2014, facing increasing interference in the Syrian civil war by external forces such as the United States, the two parties jointly protested against illegal U.S. intervention and aggression in Syria. With the support of the Syrian Communist Party and other political forces, the war situation in Syria has moved in a direction favorable to peace, with Syrian government forces recapturing Aleppo and other important cities. The dawn of peace is beginning to appear in Syria.
(5) Lebanese left-wing parties possess significant influence at home and abroad
The Lebanese Communist Party is one of the earliest communist parties established in the Middle East, founded in 1924. Historically merged with the Syrian Communist Party, it formally split into two independent parties in 1964 and gained legal status in 1970. As a mainstream party, the Lebanese Communist Party is the only party in Lebanon with members from all 18 religious sects. It remains a relatively strong communist party in the region, with approximately 30,000 members and its own armed wing. While the party has participated in several Lebanese parliamentary elections, it has yet to win a seat. The Lebanese Communist Party actively participates in the International Meeting of Communist and Workers' Parties (IMCWP) and the International Conference of Asian Political Parties (ICAPP). In November 2012, it hosted the 14th IMCWP, demonstrating strong organizational capacity and international influence. The Lebanese Communist Party was also a founder of the Arab Left Forum and has made important contributions to its operation.
The Democratic Left Movement in Lebanon, founded in 2004, has close ties to the Lebanese Communist Party. The party promotes social democracy, opposes sectarianism, and advocates for the construction of a diverse, unified, and democratic Arab society and secular state. It opposes the U.S. invasion of Iraq and other Arab countries. The party has participated in several Lebanese parliamentary elections, winning one seat in both 2005 and 2009.
The Progressive Socialist Party of Lebanon remains an important member of the Socialist International and the Progressive Alliance. It is a key member of the Lebanese National Movement and one of Lebanon's major ruling parties, winning nine seats in the 2018 parliamentary elections. It has played an important role in the social development and historical process of Lebanon. Since its founding, the party has actively contributed to the world peace and world socialist movements, exerting significant influence both domestically and abroad.
(6) The growth momentum of Turkish left-wing parties is rising
Currently, Turkey has several left-wing parties. Among the influential ones are the Patriotic Party (which evolved from the Communist Party of Turkey) and the United Communist Party of Turkey (formed in 1988 through the merger of the Communist Party of Turkey and the Workers' Party of Turkey, abbreviated as TKP). The TKP was established in September 1920 and joined the Comintern the same year. It participated in the Turkish National Liberation War led by Kemal and engaged in the anti-fascist struggle during World War II, during which its strength and influence expanded rapidly. The TKP party program stipulates that its short-term goal is the establishment of a democratic and progressive system, while its long-term goal is the realization of communism. Following the founding of the Turkish state, the TKP suffered long-term suppression by the government, and party leaders lived in exile. In April 1983, Turkey promulgated the "Law on Political Parties," lifting the ban on parties; the TKP subsequently began to resume political activities and participate in parliamentary elections, though results remained lackluster and progress slow. In recent years, the TKP has leveraged the internet and international conference platforms to continuously expand its influence. In October 2015, the TKP hosted the 17th International Meeting of Communist and Workers' Parties (IMCWP). As this meeting coincided with the Turkish domestic parliamentary elections, the TKP organized a large-scale campaign event where three of its candidates delivered speeches, accompanied by supportive addresses from representatives of the Communist Party of Greece and the Syrian Communist Party. During the conference, relevant parties also organized signature campaigns to support the TKP's participation in the elections. In October 2019, the TKP co-hosted the 21st IMCWP with the Communist Party of Greece. Currently, the TKP has over 5,000 members and has achieved notable results in some local elections, with TKP members even successfully running for and winning mayoral seats.
The Patriotic Party (Vatan Partisi) of Turkey is an important left-wing force active on the political stage of Turkey and the West Asian region in recent years. It has changed its name four times: founded in 1919 as the Workers' and Peasants' Socialist Party of Turkey, it became the Revolutionary Workers' and Peasants' Party in 1969, the Socialist Party in 1988, the Workers' Party in 1992, and finally the Patriotic Party in 2015. Theoretically, the Patriotic Party exhibits pluralistic characteristics including scientific socialism, Kemalism [11], Turkish nationalism, populism, anti-imperialism, and Eurasianism. It has undergone multiple reforms and transformations, and its history can generally be divided into a Marxist-Leninist period and a left-wing nationalist period. Although the Patriotic Party still adheres to the theory of scientific socialism, it deliberately downplays its identity and image as a Communist Party in domestic political life, focusing instead on presenting itself externally as a left-wing nationalist party. In recent years, the Patriotic Party has been active in Turkey and West Asia, and its influence has grown steadily. In 2015, its membership reached 22,647. Party Chairman Doğu Perinçek is friendly toward China, having visited thirteen times and having once been received by Mao Zedong. Recently, he has frequently voiced public support for China and socialism with Chinese characteristics. In July 2021, during the CPC and World Political Parties Summit in Beijing, Perinçek coordinated with Chinese requirements by calling on the Patriotic Party to establish 30 local sub-venues across Turkey to organize all party members to listen to the proceedings.
IV. Main Characteristics and Development Trends of the Socialist Movement in West Asia and North Africa Today
Currently, there are more than 20 Communist and left-wing parties in the West Asia and North Africa region. Following the collapse of "strongman" regimes in several countries, these parties have actively expanded their space for survival and development, strengthened external linkages and cooperation, and are overall in a phase of rising strength. However, constrained by the region's specific political environment and religious atmosphere, Communist and left-wing parties remain in a weak position within the regional party landscape, with quite limited political influence.
(1) Main Characteristics of the Current Socialist Movement in West Asia and North Africa
Focusing on Reality and Participating in National Political Struggles In the face of the chaos and conflict—marked by foreign aggression, internal strife, and rampant terrorism—that engulfed the Arab region following the "Arab Spring" [12], Communist and left-wing parties in the region have prioritized the defense of national sovereignty, the promotion of national independence and unity, and the advancement of democracy, freedom, and social justice. They seek to further the Arab revolution through their own efforts, promote internal transformation in the Arab region, and strive for a socialist alternative. The Iraqi Communist Party and the Kurdistan Communist Party, among others, believe that the most urgent and primary task is the realization of national unity, peace, and stability. To end the war as quickly as possible, the Iraqi Communist Party joined forces with the Communist parties of Turkey, Iran, and Syria, as well as left-wing forces in Jordan and other countries, to actively carry out struggles against religious extremist forces. They even organized armed forces to courageously enter the battlefield against "Islamic State," making outstanding contributions to the Iraqi peace reconstruction and democratic process, which also strengthened the power and influence of the left. However, due to historical and religious reasons, the space for development for Communist and left-wing forces in this region remains limited.
Prioritizing and Strengthening Left-wing Alignment Most left-wing parties in the West Asia and North Africa region are small in number and weak in strength, caught between authoritarian governments, extremist religious forces, and populist trends; survival is currently their primary task. As one leader noted: "Among the various challenges we face, the most serious is not ideological dispute, but that every group is anxious and seeking self-preservation." Consequently, Communist and left-wing parties in the Arab region are eager to establish united fronts to coordinate responses and achieve strength through unity. A leader of the Lebanese Communist Party pointed out: "Socialist construction cannot be limited to a single country; in the current situation, it is difficult for the left in any country to stand alone. Left-wing forces should form a powerful whole capable of protecting the left in every country on the basis of mutual support and solidarity, thereby promoting the revival of the socialist movement." To meet this need for alignment, the Arab Left Forum—a conference-based organization for Communist and left-wing parties—emerged. It seeks consensus and strategies regarding the regional and international situation, people's revolutions, terrorism, Zionism, capitalism, and the development of left-wing political forces, becoming "a new form of solidarity and cooperation among left-wing parties in the Arab region." Additionally, Arab Communist parties actively participate in the annual International Meeting of Communist and Workers' Parties. At multilateral forums, these parties express their propositions and demands to seek more international support. However, because most Communist parties have limited international influence and political energy, and because sectarian sentiments are intertwined with partisan interests, many struggle to conduct effective dialogue on major issues or reach consensus, whether domestically, regionally, or internationally.
Strengthening Friendly Relations with the Communist Party of China In the 1950s, Communist parties in countries such as Iraq, Lebanon, Morocco, and Sudan established ties with the CPC and were invited to attend the 8th National Congress of the CPC and the 10th-anniversary celebrations of the founding of the People's Republic of China. Since the 1980s, the CPC has gradually resumed exchanges with Communist parties in the region, restoring relations with those in Turkey, Israel, Syria, Palestine, and Yemen. Following the "Arab Spring," the CPC has progressively established relations with parties in Egypt, Tunisia, and Iraq, achieving full coverage of exchanges with regional Communist and left-wing parties. These parties are uniformly friendly toward China, firmly supporting the Chinese government’s positions on issues such as Taiwan, the South China Sea, and Xinjiang; they propagate CPC concepts and praise the great achievements of socialism with Chinese characteristics. These parties have organized numerous training seminars and study tours to China to learn from the CPC's experience. Since 2015, the CPC and regional left-wing parties have held annual study tours for Arab left-wing cadres and theoretical seminars. On November 23, 2021, the Second Theoretical Seminar between the CPC and Arab Left-wing Parties was held via video link, attended by over 40 leaders from 22 left-wing parties across 11 Arab countries and the Arab Left Forum. Figures such as Perinçek of the Turkish Patriotic Party and Kawa Mahmoud, General Secretary of the Kurdistan Communist Party–Iraq, have actively spoken out for China, issuing just voices of support on issues like Xinjiang, human rights, and virus origin tracing.
(2) Development Trends of the Socialist Movement in West Asia and North Africa
Adjusting Theory and Policy Based on the Situation and National Realities to Seek Paths for Survival and Development The Great Changes Unseen in a Century [13] have triggered a surge of interaction between different civilizations, ideologies, and cultures. Influenced by the COVID-19 pandemic and major-power competition, conflicts between different systems, civilizations, and values have intensified. To survive and develop, most Communist and left-wing parties in the region have engaged in extensive, in-depth reflection on traditional theories and have adjusted their goals and practical models. Overall, while maintaining their socialist orientation, these parties are not bound by traditional dogma but are actively adjusting policies, combining firmness of principle with tactical flexibility to explore new paths for development.
The Socialist Characteristics of Left-wing Parties Will Become More Distinctive The proactive response of socialist countries like China to the pandemic crisis highlights the moral superiority and correctness of socialism in valuing every life, especially in protecting the rights of the working people. Capitalism is inherently profit-driven; whether responding to economic crises or pandemics, it "robs the poor to give to the rich" and transfers its contradictions onto others. Consequently, after every crisis, the poor get poorer and the rich get richer. Communist and left-wing parties in Arab countries feel a natural ideological affinity with China, supporting its anti-epidemic actions and praising its measures and achievements.
The Overall Rise of Communist and Left-wing Forces in the Arab Region Will Take Time At present, Political Islam is a powerful force in the Arab region, far stronger than the left, which severely squeezes the survival space of left-wing forces and makes it difficult for them to overcome developmental dilemmas in the short term. Populism has exacerbated the "fragmentation" of identity; while public dissatisfaction with the status quo is rising, the consciousness of resistance often contains emotional components easily hijacked by populist forces. "Under the hostility and suppression of Political Islam, left-wing ideology has regressed and weakened to a certain extent for a time. Until now, the Arab left has not yet reached a consensus on how to formulate an action plan to deal with Political Islam, which is an urgent problem they must solve."