Xu Shicheng: A Century of Exploration and Current Status of Latin American Communist Parties

I. The Historical Evolution of the Latin American Communist Movement

The Latin American and Caribbean region (hereafter "Latin America") was among the earliest regions in the world to establish Communist Party organizations, boasting a history of over a century. Shortly after the victory of the Russian October Revolution, Communist Parties were established in succession across many Latin American countries, including the Communist Party of Argentina (1918), the Communist Party of Mexico (1919), the Communist Party of Uruguay (1920), and the Communist Parties of Chile and Brazil (1922). By the 1950s, Communist Party organizations had been established in most Latin American countries, totaling nearly 30. Since their inception, Latin American Communist Parties have traversed a tortuous path of development, achieving significant successes while also enduring numerous setbacks.

From the 1950s to the 1970s, influenced by the divergence between the Communist Party of China (CPC) and the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) regarding the line of the international communist movement, serious disagreements and debates arose within Latin American Communist Parties concerning struggle strategies and revolutionary methods. This led to organizational splits in many parties. Several traditional "old" Communist Parties in Latin America supported the CPSU's position, following its strategic shift toward the "parliamentary road" and "peaceful transition." Conversely, most of the "new" parties that split from these old parties identified themselves as Communist Parties (Marxist-Leninist), supporting the CPC’s line for the communist movement.

Among the various Latin American Communist Parties, some chose to follow the path of the Cuban Revolution, launching guerrilla warfare against their respective national dictatorships. Over 100 anti-government guerrilla groups were formed across 20 Latin American countries. Before 1967, guerrilla activities were primarily concentrated in rural areas; after 1968, they shifted to the cities. Most of these anti-government guerrilla activities ended in failure; only a few, such as those in Colombia, persisted into the 21st century.

The Communist Party of Chile (PCCh) accumulated significant experience in parliamentary struggle. In 1970, the PCCh formed a united front with the Socialist Party and other left-wing forces in the general election, supporting Socialist leader Salvador Allende’s presidential bid. During the Allende administration, Chilean Communists served as key members of the governing coalition, holding three ministerial posts—including Finance and Labor—as well as six provincial governorships and one major mayoral office. The party held 6 out of 50 seats in the Senate and 25 out of 150 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. PCCh membership once surged to nearly 200,000. Consequently, the PCCh’s "parliamentary road" was highly touted by the CPSU and several other Latin American Communist Parties. In September 1973, a right-wing military coup occurred in Chile; the Allende government was overthrown, and the PCCh was subsequently banned.

The 1970s saw frequent right-wing military coups across Latin America. With the exceptions of Mexico, Venezuela, Colombia, and Costa Rica, a cohort of authoritarian military governments emerged in the region. Communist Parties in many countries were declared illegal or banned, with their leaders and members facing persecution, while other left-wing forces were also brutally suppressed. In the late 1970s and early 1980s, the process of democratization in Latin America deepened as military governments returned power to civilian rule. Most Latin American Communist Parties regained legal status and resumed open activities. As the environment for left-wing development improved, the Latin American communist movement saw a degree of recovery. By the mid-1980s, there were more than 50 Communist Parties in Latin America with nearly one million members, half of whom belonged to the Communist Party of Cuba (PCC).

At the beginning of the 1990s, the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the drastic changes in Eastern Europe ^[1] dealt another severe blow to the socialist movement in Latin America. The Communist Party of Cuba faced unprecedented trials, and Nicaragua’s left-wing Sandinista National Liberation Front (FSLN) lost the 1990 elections. Most Latin American Communist Parties maintained Marxism as their guide, aiming to explore paths toward socialism. A small number of parties abandoned Marxism and socialism and disbanded voluntarily. Some leaders in parties like those of Argentina, Uruguay, and Bolivia saw their communist convictions waver, leading them to break away and establish parties of a social-democratic nature. At the start of the 21st century, although the number of organizations and members had declined, the main forces of Latin American Communism were preserved, and some even achieved growth.

II. General Overview of the Development of Latin American Communist Parties

Currently, there are over 20 Communist Parties in Latin America, including the Communist Party of Cuba, the Communist Party of Argentina, the Communist Party of Argentina (Extraordinary Congress), the Communist Party of Brazil, the Brazilian Communist Party, the Communist Party of Chile, the Communist Party of Venezuela, the Labor Party of Mexico, the Communist Party of Mexico, the Party of Mexican Communists, the Colombian Communist Party, the Communist Party of Ecuador, the Communist Party of Ecuador (Marxist-Leninist), the Communist Party of Bolivia, the Peruvian Communist Party, the Communist Party of Peru (Red Fatherland), the Communist Party of Uruguay, the Paraguayan Communist Party, the Communist Labor Party of the Dominican Republic, the Communist Party of El Salvador, the New Communist Party of Haiti (Marxist-Leninist), the Communist Party of Honduras, the Communist Party of Nicaragua, the People's Vanguard Party-Communist Party of Costa Rica, and the Communist Party for Independence and Socialism of Martinique. While these parties vary in scale and influence, they remain the backbone of the Latin American Left and indispensable forces in the region's political landscape.

In terms of political status, with the exception of the PCC, which is a ruling party, the other parties can generally be categorized as governing coalition parties, legal opposition parties, or parties that have failed to achieve legal registration. This article primarily focuses on these three categories of Communist Parties.

(1) Governing Coalition Parties

In recent years, Communist Parties in countries such as Brazil, Chile, and Uruguay have functioned as governing coalition parties. By forming alliances with their respective national ruling parties, they not only hold certain seats in parliament but also have members serving in government positions.

1. The Communist Party of Brazil (Partido Comunista do Brasil, PCdoB)

Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the changes in Eastern Europe, the scale of the PCdoB did not shrink but rather expanded. According to the latest statistics, the party currently has 413,681 members, making it the second-largest Communist Party in Latin America after the PCC. The PCdoB currently holds 1 seat in the Brazilian Senate (out of 81) and 12 seats in the Chamber of Deputies (out of 513). It holds one governorship among the 26 states [PCdoB member Flávio Dino served as Governor of Maranhão], along with 25 state deputies and 81 mayors. During the rule of the Brazilian Workers' Party (PT), PCdoB member Aldo Rebelo served successively as Minister of Science and Technology and Minister of Defense. From September 2005 to February 2007, Aldo Rebelo served as the President of the Chamber of Deputies. The current Party President, Luciana Santos, is the Vice Governor of Pernambuco. Since entering the 21st century, the PCdoB has convened its 10th (2001), 12th (2005), 13th (2013), and 14th (2017) National Congresses. From October 15–17, 2021, the PCdoB held its 15th Congress via video link. The primary agenda of the 15th Congress included discussing and adopting the work report of the 14th Central Committee, discussing and adopting amendments to the Party Constitution, and electing new local and central committees. Article 25 of the PCdoB Constitution stipulates that "the PCdoB is the vanguard of the Brazilian working class and laboring people, guided by the revolutionary theory of Marxism-Leninism." Article 20 proposes a program for Brazil's transition from capitalism to socialism. Article 1 of the Constitution adopted at the 14th Congress in 2017 states: "The PCdoB is the political organization of the conscious vanguard of the Brazilian proletariat, guided by the scientific and revolutionary theory formulated by Marx and Engels and developed by Lenin and other Marxists." It further states: "The PCdoB struggles against capitalist and imperialist exploitation and oppression, with the goal of the proletariat and its allies seizing power and implementing scientific socialism, its ultimate goal being the establishment of communism."

On March 18, 2021, the National Executive Committee of the PCdoB published an article titled "99 Years of the Communist Party of Brazil: Essential for Democracy," which stated:

On March 25, 2021, the Communist Party of Brazil celebrates its 99th birthday, ^[9] kicking off its centenary celebrations. Currently, the PCdoB is fighting on the front lines to defend life and democracy alongside a broad array of political forces, in order to save Brazil from the catastrophe of [current President] Bolsonaro. The PCdoB is fighting for Brazil to overcome the pandemic and for emergency vaccination for all. It strives for aid, support, and solidarity for the people, especially the poor. It fights to create jobs, maintain wage levels, and assist micro, small, and medium-sized enterprises.

The PCdoB always holds high the glorious banner of socialism. This banner is precisely that of the first great victory of the oppressed and exploited people—the Russian Socialist Revolution. Since 2009, the PCdoB has been guided by a program whose core is the struggle for a new national development plan, serving as the Brazilian road to socialism.

Connected to the Brazilian people, just as our leafy trees are rooted in the soil, the Party has always known how to stay evergreen. Linked to the flow of history and the green of life, it constantly renews its banner. For these reasons, it is both enduring and young; it has a hundred-year history but is also contemporary, as its substantive requirement is to build a strong, sovereign, democratic, and socially advanced Brazil under current harsh conditions and in the future, standing in solidarity with the peoples of the world.

On June 30, 2021, in a congratulatory letter to the CPC on its 100th anniversary, the PCdoB noted that the centenary was a significant event for them as well; that the CPC had thoroughly transformed China, lifting it out of backwardness into a developmental stage that has captured the world's attention; and that today’s China is flourishing and changing daily, leaving a deep impression on the world while providing development opportunities—a reality inseparable from the CPC’s leadership.

2. The Communist Party of Chile (Partido Comunista de Chile, PCCh)

The predecessor of the PCCh, the Socialist Workers' Party, was founded on June 4, 1912. It changed its name to the Communist Party on January 2, 1922, and joined the Communist International. From 1970 to 1973, the PCCh governed as part of the "Popular Unity" (Unidad Popular) front alongside the Socialist Party and others. In 1973, following the military coup, the PCCh was declared an illegal organization. After 1990, it regained legal status. In the early 21st century, its membership once reached 80,814. In 2014, the PCCh supported Socialist Michelle Bachelet’s second presidential campaign, and PCCh member Claudia Pascual served as Minister of Women and Gender Equity.

The PCCh declares itself a "revolutionary party of the working class," upholding the thoughts of Marx, Engels, Lenin, and Recabarren ^[2]. It maintains that Marxism-Leninism is in a state of constant development and change and serves as the party's guide to action. The PCCh persists in the struggle for socialism and workers' interests, opposes capitalist and imperialist exploitation and oppression, and aims to come to power through legal means.

Prior to the 2021 general election, political parties underwent registration. During this process, the PCCh’s registered membership decreased to 47,299; however, among registered parties, the PCCh had the highest number of members in the country. Meanwhile, membership in the ruling Renovación Nacional (RN) fell from 96,835 to 41,301, the Socialist Party of Chile fell from 118,370 to 43,895, and the Party for Democracy (PPD) fell from 106,370 to 32,818.

From November 20–22, 2020, the PCCh held its 26th National Congress and revised its Constitution. The current Party President is Guillermo Teillier, and the General Secretary is Lautaro Carmona. The Political Committee consists of 16 members. Currently, the PCCh holds 9 seats in the Chamber of Deputies, including President Teillier. In the May 2021 Constitutional Convention elections, the PCCh won 7 seats (out of 155). In the 2021 general election, as a member of the "Broad Front" (Frente Amplio), the PCCh joined the "Approve Dignity" (Aprueba Dignidad) electoral alliance. This alliance nominated Gabriel Boric, a member of Social Convergence (Convergencia Social), as its presidential candidate. In the second round of elections on December 19, 2021, Boric defeated the far-right Republican Party candidate José Antonio Kast, who had led in the first round. Boric was elected president and assumed office on March 11, 2022. There are three ministers from the PCCh in the Boric government.

3. Communist Party of Uruguay (Partido Comunista de Uruguay) The Communist Party of Uruguay (PCU) was founded on September 21, 1920, established by a majority faction of the Socialist Party founded in 1910. It joined the Communist International in 1922. Since 1971, the PCU has collaborated with other left-wing parties to form the "Broad Front" (Frente Amplio). Following the drastic changes in the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe ^[3], the PCU suffered a split. Former General Secretary Jaime Pérez led 20 members of the Central Committee to leave the party and establish the People's Democratic Party, which advocated for democratic socialism. A new leadership team, led by Marina Arismendi as General Secretary, maintained the name and program of the Communist Party of Uruguay.

In 2006, Marina Arismendi stepped down as General Secretary to serve as the Minister of Social Development; she was succeeded by Eduardo Lorier, who served until 2017. In June 2017, the 31st National Congress of the PCU was held, and Juan Castillo was elected General Secretary. In 2019, Gerardo Núñez assumed the position of Party President, which he holds to this day. The Broad Front won the general elections in 2004, 2009, and 2014, but was defeated in the 2019 general election. Currently, the PCU holds 2 seats in the Senate (out of 30) and 6 seats in the House of Representatives (out of 99).

Article 1 of the current PCU Constitution, revised in February 2019, stipulates that the PCU is the "political and ideological vanguard of the Uruguayan working class and its highest form of organization." It states that the PCU is "guided by the scientific thought of Marxism-Leninism" and "struggles for the Uruguayan working class to exercise its historical social, political, and ideological mission, guiding the Uruguayan working people toward socialism and then to the construction of communism."

(2) Legal Opposition Parties Although the Communist Parties in certain Latin American countries are neither the ruling party nor part of a governing coalition, they function as legal opposition parties. They possess a degree of political and social influence within their respective nations and exert appeal within trade unions, youth and student groups, and other mass organizations or specific demographics. Some currently hold or recently held seats in parliament. This category mainly includes the Communist Party of Venezuela, the Communist Party of Argentina, and the Communist Party of Colombia.

1. Communist Party of Venezuela (Partido Comunista de Venezuela) Founded on March 5, 1931, the Communist Party of Venezuela (PCV) is the oldest political party in Venezuela. The PCV takes Marxism-Leninism and the thought of the Venezuelan national hero Simón Bolívar as its guiding ideology. It advocates replacing the bourgeois state with a people's democratic state to advance toward the construction of socialism.

In 1998, the PCV supported the left-wing Fifth Republic Movement and Hugo Chávez’s presidential bid, which proved successful. During Chávez's administration (1999–2013), the PCV joined the Great Patriotic Pole (Gran Polo Patriótico) electoral alliance. The party's strength grew to some extent, with some members holding positions in the government and other public sectors. In the December 2005 parliamentary elections, the PCV won 8 out of 165 seats. In January 2007, David Velásquez, a member of the PCV Central Committee, was appointed Minister of People's Participation and Social Development in the Chávez government. In 2007, the PCV convened its 13th Congress specifically to discuss whether to join the United Socialist Party of Venezuela (PSUV) proposed by Chávez. The Congress decided that the PCV would not dissolve or join the PSUV, maintaining its political independence while continuing to support the Chávez government. In the 2012 presidential election, the PCV received 489,941 votes (3.29% of the total). After Chávez's death in 2013, the PCV continued to support the Maduro government and participated in the 2013 and 2018 presidential elections as a member of the Great Patriotic Pole. In the 2018 election, the PCV received 17,043 votes (1.85%). The most recent Party Congress was the 13th Congress in 2017.

In recent years, divergences between the PCV and the Maduro government/PSUV regarding domestic and foreign policy have gradually deepened. In the 2020 parliamentary elections, the PCV withdrew from the Great Patriotic Pole and formed an electoral alliance with other left-wing parties; it received 170,352 votes (2.73%), securing only 1 seat out of 277. Currently, out of 335 municipalities nationwide, the PCV holds only one mayoral office and 138 of the 2,459 municipal council seats.

2. Communist Party of Argentina (Partido Comunista de Argentina) The Communist Party of Argentina (PCA) was founded on January 6, 1918, initially named the International Socialist Party. It joined the Communist International in 1919 and changed its name to the Communist Party of Argentina in December 1920. The PCA declares itself a party of the working class, taking Marxism-Leninism as its theoretical basis and guiding ideology, with the ultimate goal of achieving communism.

The drastic changes in the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe caused a split in the PCA; membership decreased from 50,000 in the early 1990s to 22,523 in 2017, and further to 17,096 in 2020. In 1995, the PCA held its 19th Congress, criticizing the divisive behavior of dissidents within the party and emphasizing adherence to Marxism-Leninism and the direction of socialism and communism. From 2011 to 2017, the PCA participated in the Front for Victory, supporting the left-wing Justicialist Party government of Cristina Fernández. From 2017 to 2019, it joined the Citizen's Unity alliance. Since 2019, it has participated in the Frente de Todos (Front of All), supporting the current center-left government of Alberto Fernández. The PCA held 2 seats in the House of Representatives in 2001 and 1 seat in 2003. Since then, the PCA has held no seats in either house of Congress. The current Party President is Mario Alderete, and the current General Secretary is Víctor Gorodeki Kot.

3. Communist Party of Colombia (Partido Comunista Colombiano) The Communist Party of Colombia (PCC) was founded on July 17, 1930, and was a member of the Communist International. The Party Program and Constitution, revised at the 22nd Congress in 2012, stipulate that the PCC defends the principles of Marxism-Leninism and inherits the legacy of Bolívar. The PCC is a party for urban and rural laborers oppressed by capitalism, while remaining open to all people. Its purpose is to struggle for the establishment of a more just, democratic, and socially progressive Colombia. From 1964 to 1993, the PCC led the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC) anti-government guerrillas, viewing them as the party's armed wing.

In the mid-1980s, the PCC grew rapidly, with membership reaching over 50,000. In 1986, the PCC participated in the "Patriotic Union," winning 3 Senate seats and 5 seats in the House of Representatives. The collapse of the Soviet Union and the changes in Eastern Europe caused a split, leading to a significant decrease in membership. The PCC has successively participated in the Social and Political Front, the Democratic Alternative Pole, the Move for the Fatherland (Marcha Patriótica), and the List of Decency (Decentes), among others. In the 2018 general election, the PCC supported Senator and former Bogotá Mayor Gustavo Petro for president. Currently, the PCC holds 1 seat in the 418-seat House of Representatives and 3 mayoral positions out of 1,102 municipalities. The current General Secretary is Jaime Caycedo Turriago.

(3) Latin American Communist Parties without Legal Registration Due to failure to fulfill relevant documentation requirements or membership numbers failing to meet the minimum standards for registration, several Communist Parties in Latin America have not obtained legal registration with their national authorities. These mainly include the Peruvian Communist Party, the Communist Party of Peru (Red Fatherland), and the Communist Party of Bolivia.

1. Peruvian Communist Party (Partido Comunista Peruano) The Peruvian Communist Party (PCP) was founded on October 7, 1928, originally named the Socialist Party of Peru. Its founder was the famous Peruvian and Latin American Marxist thinker José Carlos Mariátegui. In March 1930, the Socialist Party of Peru joined the Communist International and changed its name to the Peruvian Communist Party in May. The PCP adheres to Marxism-Leninism and Mariátegui Thought, advocating for the creation of "Indo-American Socialism." Currently, the party maintains a stance of both support and criticism toward the left-wing Free Peru government of Pedro Castillo. The current PCP President is Roberto de la Cruz Huamán, and the General Secretary is Luis Villanueva Carbajar.

In the 1960s, influenced by the Sino-Soviet split, the PCP suffered a division. In the late 1980s and early 1990s, following the collapse of the Soviet Union and the changes in Eastern Europe, the PCP persisted in its guiding ideology of Marxism-Leninism and its forward direction toward socialism. The 11th Congress in December 1996 and the 12th Congress in November 2001 reaffirmed Marxism-Leninism and Mariátegui Thought as the party's guiding ideologies. The 13th Congress in 2008 maintained an anti-imperialist stance, criticized capitalist globalization, opposed neoliberalism, and praised the rise of left-wing forces in Latin America. In the 2020 and 2021 elections, the PCP supported Verónica Mendoza, leader of the left-wing "Together for Peru" (Juntos por el Perú), for president. The PCP won 5 seats in the parliamentary elections.

2. Communist Party of Peru (Red Fatherland) (Partido Comunista del Perú-Patria Roja) The Communist Party of Peru (Red Fatherland) was formed by a faction that split from the PCP in March 1969, though the party still marks October 7, 1928, as its founding anniversary. It is currently the Marxist party with the largest membership in Peru. The party controls the Single Trade Union of Education Workers of Peru (SUTEP). It has successively initiated or joined the Popular Democratic Front, the United Left, the "Broad Front" of the left, and the New Left Movement to participate in presidential and parliamentary elections, previously securing a small number of seats in the House and Senate. The current Party President is Alberto Moreno, and the General Secretary is Rolando Breña.

In 2006, Alberto Moreno ran for president as the candidate for the "Broad Front." In the 2020 and 2021 elections, the party supported Verónica Mendoza of "Together for Peru." Currently, the party holds a stance of both support and criticism toward the left-wing Free Peru government of Pedro Castillo.

3. Communist Party of Bolivia (Partido Comunista de Bolivia) The Communist Party of Bolivia (PCB) was founded on January 17, 1950. It held its 1st Congress in 1959. In 1964, the 2nd Congress adopted a new party program, identifying the strategic goal of establishing an anti-imperialist people's government and conducting an anti-imperialist people's revolution. In 1990, the 6th Congress reaffirmed its adherence to the revolutionary principles of Marxism-Leninism, stating that the current stage of revolution is an "anti-imperialist, anti-oligarchic people's democratic revolution," with the goal of moving toward socialism.

Affected by the drastic changes in the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe, the Communist Party of Bolivia (PCB) underwent a split in 1991, with its membership falling from 5,000 in 1986 to 2,500. Since 2002, the PCB has supported Evo Morales as the candidate for the Movement for Socialism (MAS) in successive general elections. On July 22, 2003, the National Electoral Court of Bolivia issued Resolution No. 043, announcing the cancellation of the PCB’s legal status as a political party on the grounds that it had failed to fulfill its responsibility to publish its lists of leaders and members. However, the PCB continued its activities and maintained its support for Morales. After Morales was elected president in 2005, PCB member Victor Cáceres served as Minister of Education, and PCB member Pedro Quiroga served as Vice Minister of the Interior. In April 2019, the PCB participated in the Meeting of Communist Parties of South American Countries held in Uruguay.

III. Explorations of the Era by Latin American Communist Parties

Since the onset of the 21st century, Latin American Communist Parties have continuously adjusted their theoretical propositions and embarked on new practical explorations in response to changes in regional and international situations.

(i) Theoretical Propositions of Latin American Communist Parties

In recent years, the political landscapes of the world and Latin America have undergone major shifts. The Communist Parties of Latin American countries have reflected deeply on major theoretical and practical issues concerning the current global and regional situations, putting forward new ideas and understandings.

1. Persisting with the Sinicization of Marxism in a Local Context Latin American Communist Parties have always insisted on taking Marxism-Leninism as the guiding ideology and policy of the party; this is the most fundamental difference between them and other types of leftist parties in the region. In recent years, the greatest shift in the theoretical adjustment of Latin American Communist Parties has been the move from a dogmatic treatment of Marxism-Leninism toward promoting its localization and "Latin Americanization." This is a common trend in their theoretical explorations. For example, both the Communist Party of Peru [PCP] and the Communist Party of Peru (Red Fatherland) [PCP-PR] place Mariátegui Thought alongside Marxism-Leninism as the party's guiding ideology, emphasizing the "Peruvianization" of Marxism-Leninism to realize "Indo-American Socialism." The Communist Party of Venezuela (PCV) emphasizes that it is guided by Marxism-Leninism and the thoughts of the Venezuelan national hero, Simón Bolívar. The Communist Party of Chile (PCCh) emphasizes adherence to the thoughts of Marx, Engels, Lenin, and Recabarren.

2. Redefining the Nature of the Party New explorations and developments in the theory of Party building ^[4] among several Latin American Communist Parties are mainly reflected in the redefinition of the Party's nature, status, and role. In the past, they defined the Communist Party as the "vanguard of the proletariat"; now, they emphasize that the party is a "party of the working people" or an "advanced, democratic, mass Communist Party," seeking thereby to expand the Party's class and social base. As each party occupies a different position and faces different specific circumstances, their understandings and practices also vary. For instance, the Communist Party of Colombia (PCC) emphasizes that it is a party of urban and rural workers oppressed by capitalism, while remaining open to all Colombian people. In March 2004, the Communist Party of Brazil (PCdoB) proposed that it is a "mass Communist Party."

3. Emphasizing the Importance of Legal Struggle Under new historical conditions, most Latin American Communist Parties no longer emphasize the necessity of armed struggle. Instead, they advocate for taking power through elections or other democratic means via legal struggle. Parties such as the PCdoB, PCV, and PCC engaged in armed struggle during the 1960s and 70s; today, under new historical conditions, they have all renounced armed struggle and formed alliances with other leftist or progressive parties and organizations in their countries to participate in elections. Legal struggle has become their primary means of struggle.

4. Seeking Alternative Paths to Neoliberalism Latin American Communist Parties resolutely oppose neoliberalism and actively seek alternative models. They generally believe that the neoliberal system is facing a crisis and that neoliberalism is far from capable of guaranteeing social development. Instead, it causes social wealth to become increasingly concentrated in the hands of monopoly oligarchs, leads to rising unemployment, and intensifies the poverty of the majority, leaving them in a state of abandonment. These parties generally believe that the contemporary world is still in the stage of transition from capitalism to socialism. They advocate for continuing to explore strategies and means to oppose imperialism, replacing capitalism with socialism, and actively carrying out the anti-capitalist struggle while exploring paths toward socialism based on their own national realities. For example, the PCdoB believes the party’s ultimate goal is the realization of scientific socialism and communism, stating that socialism and communism are the only correct way forward for Brazil. The PCV believes that socialism is a higher and more perfected revolutionary democratic system; it seeks to replace the bourgeois state with a people’s democratic state to move toward the construction of socialism.

(ii) Practical Explorations of Latin American Communist Parties

In the process of carrying out political and social activities, Latin American Communist Parties currently employ both traditional and new forms of struggle. Their activities are manifested primarily in the following aspects:

1. Participating in various elections and actively integrating into national political and social life Communist parties in countries like Brazil, Chile, and Uruguay have become governing or participating parties through elections. Other Latin American Communist Parties, after obtaining legal status, have also actively participated in various electoral activities. In the 2021 municipal elections, Irací Hassler, a female member of the PCCh, was elected Mayor of the capital, Santiago.

2. Actively participating in the deliberation and administration of state affairs to exert direct or indirect influence on government decision-making Communist parties in countries such as Brazil, Chile, Uruguay, and Argentina actively participate in the deliberation and administration of state affairs through their representatives in parliament and members holding positions in central or local governments. These members either support the policy measures of leftist governments or oppose the anti-people measures of right-wing governments. Through such participation, they have broadened the channels for Latin American Communist Parties to participate in national and local governance, enriching the content and methods of their political practice.

3. Carrying out mass and labor movements to enhance the Party's political and social influence Communist parties in Latin America have always maintained close ties with the labor movement; in some countries, the leaders of major trade unions are communists. Under current circumstances, organizing and leading various forms of labor and mass movements remains the primary form of political and social activity and struggle for these parties. For example, the PCP has long controlled and led the General Confederation of Peruvian Workers (CGTP), while the PCP-PR has long controlled the Unitary Union of Education Workers of Peru (SUTEP). The PCC maintains influence over Colombia's largest trade union, the Central Union of Workers (CUT).

4. Attaching importance to propaganda and mobilization to actively spread socialism and Marxism Since their founding, Latin American Communist Parties have prioritized propaganda and mobilization. Most have their own party newspapers or journals, such as Chile's El Siglo, Uruguay's El Popular, and Venezuela's Tribuna Popular. In addition to traditional print versions, since entering the 21st century, they have adapted to the development of the information and network era by launching electronic versions and establishing party websites. Some have opened accounts on Facebook and Twitter, using social networks and other modern information means and new media methods to propagate Marxist-Leninist thought and party propositions. This strengthens ties with members and the domestic populace and maintains contact and exchange with communist and progressive parties in other countries via video conferences.

5. Continuously strengthening ties and solidarity among communist and progressive leftist parties in Latin America and other regions Latin American Communist Parties actively participate in the International Meeting of Communist and Workers' Parties (IMCWP), initiated by the Communist Party of Greece in 1999. In November 2008, the 10th IMCWP was held in São Paulo, Brazil. Latin American Communist Parties also actively participate in and support the activities of the São Paulo Forum, a leftist regional forum. Currently, 17 Communist Parties in Latin America are member parties of the São Paulo Forum; it can be said that they are the main force of the forum.

Latin American Communist Parties also actively hold regional joint meetings to strengthen coordination and solidarity. In October 2007, the Communist Parties of Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, Cuba, Paraguay, and Uruguay met in Montevideo and issued a joint statement. In August 2016, a Meeting of Latin American Communist and Revolutionary Parties was held in Peru; the "Lima Declaration" adopted there emphasized that "the only viable alternative to capitalism is socialism." This meeting passed a foundational document drafted by the Communist Party of Cuba titled Our American Consensus (Consenso de Nuestra América). In January 2017, the working group of the São Paulo Forum used this document as a basis to submit Our American Consensus to the forum as a program of action for leftist parties in Latin America and the Caribbean, including Communist Parties. ^[27] Latin American Communist Parties voice support for socialist Cuba and leftist governments such as Venezuela, opposing U.S. blockades and sanctions. They express unconditional support for the Cuban Revolution, stating that Cuba's existence and its resistance to imperialist conspiracies and aggression are of great significance for the development of people's struggles and for firming the conviction that socialism must replace barbaric capitalism. In May 2018, a Meeting of Latin American Communist Parties was held in Lima, Peru, jointly hosted by the PCP and PCP-PR, with representatives from eight countries: Argentina, Brazil, Bolivia, Chile, Ecuador, Mexico, Uruguay, and Venezuela. The meeting concluded that the Communist Party is indispensable for revolutionary change and cannot be replaced by any other political organization. In April 2019, the South American Communist Parties held a meeting in Montevideo, emphasizing that Latin American Communist Parties are currently in a stage of resisting the offensive of the U.S. and Latin American far-right forces, and that the new trend is to form alliances with leftist parties to carry out democratic transformation.

Latin American Communist Parties have also strengthened ties with the Communist Party of Vietnam and the Workers' Party of Korea. In 2017, Alberto Anaya, the General Coordinator of the Labor Party of Mexico (PT), visited Vietnam and held talks with Nguyễn Phú Trọng, General Secretary of the Communist Party of Vietnam. From October 21–22, 2021, the PT held the 25th "Parties and a New Society" international seminar in Mexico City. More than 100 representatives from over 70 Communist and leftist parties from more than 40 countries in Latin America, Europe, Asia (including the Communist Party of Vietnam), and Africa attended. Alberto Anaya presided over the meeting, and Arzuaga Reyes, Deputy Head of the International Department of the Communist Party of Cuba, was among the attendees.

6. Taking feasible measures to help their countries combat the COVID-19 pandemic Latin America was a region hit relatively late by the direct impact of the pandemic. On February 26, 2020, the first confirmed case of COVID-19 in Latin America occurred in Brazil. After entering May, the pandemic developed rapidly. On May 22, the World Health Organization confirmed that South America had become a new "epicenter" of the pandemic. By mid-January 2022, confirmed cases in Latin America exceeded 50.2 million, with more than 1.5 million deaths.

Some Latin American Communist Parties (and their members) took feasible measures to help residents combat the pandemic. For example, Irací Hassler, who was elected in May and took office in June 2021 as Mayor of Santiago, Chile, and Daniel Jadue, a PCCh member who was elected and took office as Mayor of Chile’s Recoleta district in the same year, established "People's Pharmacies" in their jurisdictions to lower the price of medical supplies and alleviate the burden on the common people. On November 26, 2021, the PCdoB caucus in the Chamber of Deputies supported a proposal requesting the government not to cancel the "Family Grant" (Bolsa Família) for poor families during the pandemic and urged the government to formulate effective poverty alleviation plans.

(iii) Relations Between Latin American Communist Parties and the Communist Party of China

From 1965 to the late 1970s, the majority of Latin American communist parties adopted a position of supporting the Communist Party of the Soviet Union during the Great Debate ^[5] within the international communist movement. Concurrently, as China was in the period of the "Cultural Revolution" and "ultra-Left" ^[6] ideological trends were rampant, the relations between the CPC and most Latin American communist parties deteriorated or were severed. In the late 1970s, following the conclusion of the "Cultural Revolution" and the onset of China’s reform and opening up, traditional Latin American communist parties gradually restored their relations with the CPC. In the late 1980s and early 1990s, the drastic changes in Eastern Europe, the dissolution of the Soviet Union, and the disbanding of the Soviet Communist Party caused Latin American communist parties to gradually shift their positions and attach greater importance to developing ties with the CPC. In recent years, many Latin American communist parties have spoken highly of socialism with Chinese characteristics and the CPC's role in the international communist movement, as well as the great achievements of China's reform and opening up and the Chinese path.

On June 9, 2020, the International Department of the CPC Central Committee held a video conference with communist parties from various Latin American countries. Under the theme of "Examining the Conceptual Advantages of the Communist Party’s ‘People First’ ^[7] Principle through the Anti-Epidemic Struggle," participants engaged in in-depth exchanges on upholding the original aspiration and founding mission of communists, strengthening anti-epidemic cooperation, and opposing the use of the pandemic for stigmatization. Leaders from the communist parties of Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Cuba, Peru, Uruguay, and Venezuela attended.

Victor Kot, General Secretary of the Communist Party of Argentina, spoke highly of the great achievements made by New China ^[8] under the leadership of the CPC. Kot stated: "I believe New China's first major contribution to the world was its founding. It profoundly influenced the world revolutionary movement and changed the global landscape. The second major contribution is the integration of the basic principles of Marxism with China’s actual conditions, innovating and developing Marxist theory and creating a successful Chinese development model. Third is China’s advocacy for building a community with a shared future for humanity, committing to the promotion of mutually beneficial cooperation and the development of globalization."

In May 2021, communist parties from various Latin American countries, including Argentina, Brazil, Cuba, Chile, Colombia, Venezuela, and Peru, jointly sent a letter to the International Department of the CPC Central Committee to congratulate the CPC on its centenary. This was the first collective congratulatory letter from foreign political parties received by the CPC on the occasion of its 100th anniversary. This fully demonstrates the deep friendship and positive relations between Latin American communist parties and the CPC. On July 16, 2021, Juan Castillo, General Secretary of the Communist Party of Uruguay, visited the Chinese Embassy in Uruguay and met with Ambassador Wang Gang. During the meeting, the Communist Party of Uruguay congratulated the CPC on its centenary, emphasized China's international role, and praised China's "Belt and Road" Initiative.

Conclusion

The Latin American communist movement has a history of over a hundred years. Having withstood various severe trials, the Latin American communist movement and Latin American communist parties constitute an important political force that cannot be ignored in the region. At present, while the political status of communist parties in various Latin American countries varies, and their political influence and organizational conditions differ, they all persist in taking Marxism-Leninism as their guide and maintain that socialism will inevitably replace capitalism. For Latin American communist parties entering the 21st century, opportunities and challenges coexist.

Generally speaking, the ideological and theoretical propositions of Latin American communist parties have not occupied a mainstream position in the region. Except for the Communist Party of Cuba, no Latin American communist party has ever governed a country alone. There remain many deficiencies in the theory, organization, and cultivation of cadres within these parties. The changes in the political ecosystem of the Latin American political arena "turning to the left" from the late 1990s to the first 15 years of the 21st century, and again since 2018, have brought development opportunities to Latin American communist parties. Firmly upholding socialist ideals, continuously reflecting on and adjusting struggle strategies, criticizing imperialism and neoliberalism, and strengthening ties with the CPC have become the common choices for Latin American communist parties as they move forward through twists and turns. Latin American communist parties must proceed from the realities of their own countries, integrate Marxism-Leninism with the revolutionary practice of their nations, continuously carry out theoretical innovation, and propose policy positions suited to their national conditions and the demands of the masses. Only then can they escape the danger of marginalization and truly become the leadership and backbone for the Latin American proletariat and working people to realize the ideals of socialism and communism.