Zhang Xiuqin, Zhang Xiang: Moving Beyond the Misconceptions of Western Ecologism
At the National Conference on Ecological and Environmental Protection, General Secretary Xi Jinping pointed out that to continue advancing the construction of ecological civilization, we must take the Xi Jinping Thought on Ecological Civilization in the New Era as our guide. We must correctly handle major relationships, such as those between high-quality development and high-level protection, between key breakthroughs and collaborative governance, between natural recovery and man-made restoration, between external constraints and endogenous momentum, and between "dual carbon" commitments and independent action. This represents a theoretical innovation in the Sinicization and modernization of the Marxist view of ecology. In contrast, Western ecologism advocates placing the ecological environment above economic and social development, emphasizing ecological protection in a one-sided manner, and thus possessing certain practical limitations. We must view it with a critical and dialectical eye, implement the New Development Philosophy in light of new contemporary conditions, and establish a scientific outlook on ecological civilization to guide practice in the New Era.
Main Viewpoints of Western Ecologism
The development and evolution of ecologism has been a long-term process. Its history can be traced back to the environmental protection movement of the late 19th century. By the 1960s and 1970s, as problems such as population growth, resource consumption, and environmental pollution intensified, ecologism began to rise in the West. At the end of the 20th century, as global environmental problems became increasingly prominent, it gradually spread to countries worldwide and exerted its influence. Ecologism first manifested as preservationism and environmentalism, later developing theoretical forms such as animal liberation and rights theory, biocentrism, ecocentrism, and ecological postmodernism.
Preservationism and environmentalism were first proposed by Americans against the backdrop of the continuous advancement of modern civilization. In the 19th century, thinkers like Emerson and Thoreau began to emphasize the relationship between humans and nature, advocating for the protection of and respect for nature. The founding of the Sierra Club and the establishment of US National Parks were important milestones in the development of preservationism. In the 20th century, figures such as Gifford Pinchot and Aldo Leopold were pioneers of modern environmentality. Rachel Carson’s publication of Silent Spring in 1962 is considered the symbol of the birth of modern environmentalism.
The representative figure of animal liberation and rights theory is the Australian philosopher Peter Singer, whose book Animal Liberation sparked the animal rights movement in the West. This theory is dedicated to extending the principles of liberty, equality, and fraternity to the lives of non-human animals, burying the concept of animal slavery in the grave of history.
Biocentrism maintains that not only animals, but all living beings should be objects of human moral concern. All living things have their own interests, and the interests of every living thing deserve to be maintained and promoted.
Ecocentrism advocates for a holistic environmental ethic, arguing that the natural environment possesses inherent "intrinsic value" that exists independently of human evaluation. Human moral concern should be extended from individual organisms to the entire ecosystem, pursuing the overall health of the ecosystem.
Ecological postmodernism, proposed by American ecofeminist Charlene Spretnak, argues that ecological and environmental problems are merely a manifestation of the crisis of modern civilization. To root out the ecological crisis, one must break through modern civilization.
Theoretical Defects of Western Ecologism
Ecologism is a correction of traditional anthropocentrism; it redefines the relationship between humanity and nature and plays a positive role in dealing with the ecological and environmental problems that humanity faces collectively. However, the school of ecologism is complex and one-sided; we must think critically about it to avoid falling into the trap of metaphysics [1].
First, it overemphasizes the opposition and contradiction between nature and humanity. Ecologists believe that humans are just one species on Earth, that other living beings have equal status with humans, and that human survival and development inevitably cause damage to the natural environment. This view ignores the interaction and interdependence between humans, nature, and other organisms. This perspective, which detaches itself from human subjectivity and creativity to discuss ecological protection only at an abstract level, is one-sided.
Second, there is a certain degree of misunderstanding regarding economic development. Ecologists believe that economic growth and environmental protection are contradictory. They argue that economic growth leads to environmental pollution and resource depletion, and therefore advocate for policies that limit economic growth to protect the environment and resources. This view overlooks the protective role that economic growth can play for the environment. Attempting to exchange economic stagnation for ecological improvement will not only fail to achieve the intended goals but will instead be counterproductive.
Third, it holds a one-sided negative attitude toward science, technology, and modern civilization. Within the trend of ecologism, some believe that science, technology, and modern civilization are the primary causes of environmental problems, and they advocate for a return to traditional lifestyles while restricting the development of technology and modern civilization. This view incorrectly attributes the cause of ecological problems, failing to recognize that the capitalist system is the most fundamental root cause of ecological environmental issues.
The Path to Correcting Western Ecologism
Fundamentally, Western ecologism is a product of the modern Western ecological crisis and possesses obvious theoretical defects. The Marxist view of ecology profoundly clarifies the subjective role of humanity in ecological protection and reveals the dialectical relationship between ecological protection and economic-social development, pointing the way to move beyond the misconceptions of Western ecologism.
The Marxist view of ecology accurately grasps the internal essence of the ecological crisis at its source. Capitalist private ownership is the root cause of the ecological crisis; capital’s profit motive and dynamic mechanism inevitably lead to the exploitation of nature. Without touching the logic of capital or the prerequisite of the capitalist system, any attempt to eliminate the ecological crisis will fail to solve the problem fundamentally. Ecologism fails to criticize the capitalist system, instead pinning its hopes for total ecological improvement on changing values and development modes, which is bound to be in vain. To completely eliminate the ecological crisis, one must transform the social system, eliminate capitalist private ownership, and achieve the harmonious coexistence of man and nature.
The Marxist view of ecology embodies dialectical characteristics. Although Western ecologism emphasizes viewing the relationship between man and nature, and development and protection, from an ecological whole, it remains essentially a dualistic mode of thinking while simultaneously ignoring human developmental demands. Unlike the Western ecologist approach of devaluing humans, the Marxist view of ecology places human subjectivity and purposiveness in their proper positions. Western ecologism severs the link between development and protection, viewing the relationship between the two with a zero-sum mentality; the result is inevitably neglecting one for the sake of the other, which is unsustainable.
The Marxist view of ecology possesses a distinct practical nature. The Marxist view of ecology is not "armchair scholarship" [2]; it stays rooted in concrete practice and is continuously tested and developed through practice. Xi Jinping Thought on Ecological Civilization is the result of the innovative development of the Marxist view of ecology, providing the fundamental follow-through [3] for China’s construction of ecological civilization. The "Ten Persistents" [4] in the construction of ecological civilization with Chinese characteristics are the specific application of the Marxist view of ecology in practice. Under the guidance of Xi Jinping Thought on Ecological Civilization, China’s construction of ecological civilization has achieved outstanding results, further verifying the scientific nature of the Marxist view of ecology and becoming the fundamental way to correct the trend of ecologism.