Nguyen Ngan Binh: Research on the Development of Vietnam's Socialist Democratic Theory Since Doi Moi
Theoretical exploration is a key link in the construction of democratic politics and an indispensable driving force for advancing political progress. Socialist democracy is one of the three pillars of the Vietnamese socialist model; it serves as both the goal and the driving force for the cause of Doi Moi [1], national development, and socialist construction, occupying an important position in Vietnamese socialist theory and practice. Guided by Marxism-Leninism and Ho Chi Minh Thought, Vietnamese socialist democracy theory takes the affirmation of the people's role and status within the democratic political system as its basic compliance, and the establishment of a state belonging to the people, by the people, and for the people as its teleological value. It is a vital component of Vietnamese socialist theory. Through long-term practice, the Communist Party of Vietnam (CPV) has continuously developed its theory of socialist democracy, providing essential guidance for the construction of socialist democratic politics in Vietnam, offering useful references for constructing a discourse system of socialist democracy, and contributing experience to the development of democracy under the conditions of a socialist market economy.
I. The Background of the Development of Socialist Democracy Theory in Vietnam Since Doi Moi
Since the beginning of Doi Moi, the theory and practice of socialist democracy in Vietnam have developed rapidly, and the people have intuitively sensed the realization of democracy in their lives. The level and depth of democratic theory determine the effectiveness and realm of democratic practice. The development of democratic theory follows its own developmental laws: one must correctly recognize the historical positioning of the economy and society to develop a theory compatible with them.
(1) Economic Reform and Transformation Drive the Renewal of Democratic Theory
The economic base plays a decisive role in the superstructure, including the political system and ideological concepts. Economic transformation drives the renewal of democratic concepts and requires democratic theory to adapt to the requirements of reform, continuously developing and enriching itself. The Sixth National Congress of the CPV proposed the policy of Doi Moi and emphasized the "guiding principle of 'taking the people as the root' [2] and the democratic requirements of 'the people know, the people discuss, the people do, and the people supervise.'"
After Doi Moi, Vietnam transitioned from a planned, closed economic model to a market-oriented, open economic system. To attract more foreign investment, the National Assembly of Vietnam passed a new Law on Foreign Investment in 1988, allowing foreign enterprises to establish wholly-owned companies and implementing tax incentives. Further amendments were made in 1990 to expand the scope of international cooperation in the private sector. In 2020, Vietnam further simplified the approval process for foreign-funded enterprises and increased tax incentives and rent reductions for agriculture, education, and supporting industries. Vietnam joined the World Trade Organization in 2007 and became a negotiating member of the Trans-Pacific Partnership (hereinafter "TPP") in 2010. To join the TPP, Vietnam formulated policies regarding industrial policy, market opening, government functions, and state-owned enterprise reform, promoting domestic economic system reform and industrial structural adjustment. These measures significantly advanced Vietnam’s economic transformation and internationalization process.
The steady growth of the Vietnamese economy has provided the material foundation for the innovative development of democratic theory. Economic reform requires Vietnam to emphasize market and social demands, citizen rights, and social equity when formulating and executing economic policies, ensuring that the fruits of economic growth benefit the masses justly. Existing socialist democracy theory was clearly no longer able to explain and guide Vietnam's democratic practice; there was an urgent need to develop a democratic theory commensurate with the level of the economy.
(2) Political System Reform Requires Synchronized Development of Democratic Theory
The CPV advocates for the coordinated advancement of economic reform and political reform, with economic development as the center and Party building as the key. It focuses on developing the economy and relies on economic achievements to gradually innovate the political system, theoretical thinking, economic thinking, working style, and the Party's leadership methods.
The effectiveness of Vietnam's political reform is significant, particularly reflected in the major reforms of the National Assembly, the executive, and the judicial systems. National Assembly reform is the "bellwether" of political reform. Vietnam has strengthened the role of the National Assembly within the supervision system and elevated its status and responsibility in deciding major national issues. This has significantly enhanced the masses' awareness of participation and enthusiasm, making the National Assembly an important platform for the public to express their will and supervise the government. In 2001, the Vietnamese government approved the "Master Plan on State Administrative Reform for the 2001–2010 Period," which included four vital reform dimensions: institutional reform, organizational reform, civil servant development, and public finance. The goal was to "establish a democratic, clean, strong, professional, modernized, effective, and efficient state administrative system." The reforms created an atmosphere of democracy and openness in Vietnamese society, establishing corresponding mechanisms to safeguard the people's democratic rights.
When reviewing the achievements and deficiencies of 30 years of Doi Moi, the 12th National Congress of the CPV pointed out that "political system reform is not synchronized with economic reform, and the capacity and effectiveness of the political system do not meet the requirements of the tasks." It emphasized that if reform deviates from or violates the interests of the masses, it will inevitably meet with failure. The aspirations and creative practices of the masses are one of the bases for the formation of the CPV's reform line. Reform must implement the viewpoint of "taking the people as the root," leverage the power of the people, seek benefits for the people, and ensure that all power belongs to the people.
As Doi Moi continues to deepen, the CPV not only faces threats of "peaceful evolution" [3] from foreign powers under the guise of "freedom" and "human rights" but must also remain constantly vigilant against the erosion of its political authority by domestic and intra-Party interest groups, preventing "self-evolution" and "self-transformation" [4]. Therefore, constructing a socialist democracy discourse system and promoting the construction of socialist democratic politics are inevitable requirements for "defeating hostile and reactionary forces" and building a "clean and strong Party and political system."
(3) Changes in Social Structure Require a Response from Democratic Theory
With the deep development of reform, especially the establishment of the socialist-oriented market economy system, Vietnam’s social structure has undergone significant changes. New social strata—such as private entrepreneurs and the middle class—have emerged. Since 2002, the proportion of the middle class in Vietnam's total population has gradually risen, increasing from 10.8% to 35.3% in 2018, with an average annual growth rate of 1.5%. By contrast, the proportion of farmers fell from 58.0% in 2002 to 39.2% in 2018, an average annual decrease of 1.2%; the scale of the peasantry is shrinking as they move toward the middle class. However, it should be noted that while Vietnam’s poverty reduction work has achieved certain results, the gap between the rich and the poor among different strata remains a serious problem. Due to income inequality, there are distinct differences in the quality of life between the wealthy and the impoverished.
With changes in Vietnam's social structure, especially the continuous expansion of opening up and the popularization of the internet, the lifestyles and value systems of rural and urban residents have changed significantly. People have begun to pay more attention to their own rights and obligations, as well as the impact of policies on their individual lives. In particular, the rapid development of information technology has brought diverse life experiences and broader channels for expressing opinions to the Vietnamese people, among which social media and online forums have become new platforms for discussing social issues. In this context, the CPV regards socialist democracy as the driving force of reform, emphasizing the need to integrate the interest demands of all strata through democratic mechanisms to achieve social harmony, stability, and the Great Unity of the entire nation. Developing socialist democracy theory is not only a requirement for Vietnam's socialist construction but also an inevitable choice for Vietnam's political development in the context of opening up and globalization.
II. The Development of Theoretical Understanding of Socialist Democracy in Vietnam Since Doi Moi
After Doi Moi, the CPV realized that the construction of democratic politics must be integrated with the country's national conditions. Its socialist democracy theory has gradually displayed more Vietnamese characteristics through the process of the Sinicization—or more accurately, the indigenization—of Marxism, forming a series of new understandings. "The CPV's theory on democracy and socialist democracy has continuously made new progress, reaching a more complete and profound understanding of the essence, form, nature, role, and status of socialist democracy."
(1) Continuous Renewal of the Understanding of the Essence of Socialist Democracy
The 4th National Congress of the CPV proposed that the prerequisite for the socialist revolution is to establish and continuously strengthen the dictatorship of the proletariat, establish a system of socialist collective mastery, and realize and continuously exert the collective mastery rights of the working people. "Establishing a system of socialist collective mastery means building our country into a society where the organized working people, with the working class as the leader and the worker-peasant alliance as the backbone, are the true masters, and the social community is the true master." Specifically, to establish collective mastery in the economy, it required that "capitalist private ownership must be abolished, the individual ownership of farmers and handicraftsmen must be transformed, and through appropriate methods and steps, two forms of socialist ownership must be established: ownership by the whole people and collective ownership."
The convening of the 6th National Congress of the CPV marked the beginning of Doi Moi. The congress drew lessons from the period since Vietnam's unification regarding the judgment of national conditions and the determination of goals and steps for socialist construction, deciding to reform the economic structure and economic management system. However, the theory of socialist democracy did not reform synchronously; it still inherited the previous understanding of the essence of democracy. After a period of reform, the CPV gradually recognized that the forms of ownership by the whole people and collective ownership did not conform to Vietnam's level of economic development and realistic conditions at that time. The 7th National Congress of the CPV formed a new understanding of socialist democracy and began to cease using the concepts of "collective mastery rights" and the "system of collective mastery." Nguyen Van Linh pointed out at the meeting: "Democracy is the law of the formation, development, and self-perfection of the socialist political system." The "Platform for National Construction in the Period of Transition to Socialism" (hereinafter the "1991 Platform") passed at the congress stated: Socialist democracy is ensuring that all power belongs to the people.
(2) Continuous Deepening of the Understanding of the Subjects of Socialist Democracy
The 1991 Platform summarized the experience of the revolutionary cause "belonging to the people, coming from the people, and for the people," pointing out that a characteristic of Vietnamese socialism is that "the working people are the masters of the house." The change from "working people" to "the people" is both a further deepening of the understanding of the subjects of socialist democracy and a reflection of the theory's development to adapt to the practice of Doi Moi: updating class concepts, promoting national unity, and emphasizing the role of entrepreneurs and the private economy.
Vietnamese socialist democracy possesses a distinct class nature and a broad mass nature. Its constitution explicitly states: "The Socialist Republic of Vietnam is a socialist state ruled by law, which belongs to the people, is organized by the people, and is all for the people," and "The Socialist Republic of Vietnam is mastered by the people; all state power belongs to the people based on the alliance between the working class, the peasantry, and the intelligentsia." "The people" is a concept encompassing all Vietnamese citizens, equal regardless of age, gender, wealth, ethnicity, class, belief, or religion. The working people—composed of the working class, the peasantry, and the intelligentsia—constitute the vast majority of "the people." The socialist essence of ensuring that state power truly serves the majority of society determines that the working people are the foundation of Vietnamese state power, reflecting a distinct class nature. Vietnam’s socialist democracy is based on the alliance of the working class with the peasantry and the intelligentsia; it is led by the Communist Party and dedicated to serving the interests of the working class, the people, and the entire nation, reflecting a broad mass nature.
(3) Continuous Elevation of the Status of Socialist Democracy
The status of socialist democracy within the reports of successive National Congresses of the Communist Party of Vietnam (CPV) and its issued programmatic documents has continuously ascended. This indicates that the CPV increasingly values the role of democratic principles in Party building and national development. The 8th and 9th National Congresses of the CPV successively incorporated "democracy" into the overarching goals of national construction and revolution, emphasizing the need to continue advancing reform and opening up (革新开放, Đổi Mới), ensuring that democracy is reflected in the processes of policy resolution and execution, and realizing the goals of a wealthy people, a strong country, and a fair, democratic, and civilized society, thereby holding high the banner of democracy.
The 11th National Congress of the CPV adopted the "Platform for National Construction in the Period of Transition to Socialism (2011 Amendment)" (hereinafter referred to as the "2011 Platform"). The 2011 Platform stipulates: The socialist society constructed by the Vietnamese people is a society with a wealthy people, a strong country, democracy, fairness, and civilization, owned by the people. Placing democracy before fairness signifies that the CPV regards democracy as an important means and foundation for achieving fairness, prosperity, and social stability—a more comprehensive and accurate understanding of the role of democracy. At the 12th National Congress of the CPV, Nguyen Phu Trong delivered a report titled "Strengthening the Building of a Pure and Strong Party; Leveraging the Power of the Entire Nation and Socialist Democracy; Comprehensively and Coordinately Promoting the New Cause of Revolution; Firmly Defending the Fatherland and Maintaining a Peaceful and Stable Environment; Striving to Basically Build Vietnam into a Modern Industrial Country at an Early Date." Thus, socialist democracy became the theme of the Congress, indicating it has reached a new height in Vietnam's political life.
Socialist democracy has been successively identified as the goal and driving force for "reform and opening up," the "cause of reform, construction, and defense of the Vietnamese socialist cause," "national development," and the "cause of socialist construction." The 1991 Platform pointed out that the essence of reforming and improving the national political system is to build socialist democracy, which is both the "goal and the driving force of reform and opening up." The 10th National Congress of the CPV further enriched this theory, proposing that socialist democracy is not only the goal and driving force for the cause of reform, construction, and defense of Vietnamese socialism, but also embodies the close relationship between the Party, the state, and the people; it explicitly stated the need to gradually build and improve socialist democracy to guarantee the rights of the people. The 2011 Platform designated socialist democracy as the goal and driving force of "national development," noting that "socialist democracy is the essence of the Vietnamese state system, being both the goal of national development and its driving force. Establish and gradually improve socialist democracy to ensure that democracy is realized in the practical life at all levels and in all fields." In 2021, Nguyen Phu Trong emphasized: "Democracy is the essence of socialism; it is both the goal and the driving force for the cause of socialist construction."
(4) The continuous enrichment of the connotations of socialist democracy
The CPV's understanding of the connotations of democracy and socialist democracy has expanded to include political systems, values, social organizational methods and principles, as well as democracy in various aspects such as politics, economy, culture, and society. Nguyen Phu Trong explicitly pointed out: "Democracy is the essence of socialism... Building socialist democracy and ensuring that power truly belongs to the people is a long-term and important task of the Vietnamese revolution." He believes that socialist democracy is not only a political system but also a social system, serving as the fundamental principle in all fields of socialist society. The society pursued by Vietnam is one that is people-centered and focuses on social progress and fairness, rather than a society that exploits human dignity for profit; it is a society that advocates benevolence, solidarity, mutual assistance, and progress, opposing a society that serves only a minority and unfair competition; it is a society that ensures power truly belongs to, comes from, and serves the people, rather than one that serves only a wealthy minority. From a comparative perspective, the CPV believes that socialist democracy is a transcendence of "liberal democracy," stating that "the democratic systems of the 'democratic freedom' formula that Western countries are currently keen on promoting and imposing globally cannot guarantee the most fundamental element of democracy: that power truly belongs to the people, is exercised by the people, and serves the people. This power system is still primarily in the hands of a few wealthy individuals and serves those large capitalist groups."
Socialist democracy is the organizational method of the Vietnamese state and the principle for political and social organizations. This is reflected in the social values found in the protection of citizens' rights and obligations and the degree of political participation, as well as in the outlook on life, worldviews, and operational purposes of various political and social forces. Vietnamese socialist democracy emphasizes both the leadership role of a specific class and focuses on the common welfare of the entire society and the collective interests of all people; it embodies the characteristics of Vietnamese history, culture, and society while also conforming to the common values of all humanity, representing a "unity between class nature and people-centeredness, and between national character and humanity."
III. The Development of Socialist Democratic Construction Theory since Reform and Opening Up
With the deepening understanding of the essence, subject, status, and connotation of socialist democracy, the CPV has formed a series of theories regarding the construction of socialist democratic politics: namely, persisting with one overall model, grasping two pairs of important relationships, implementing three basic forms, and carrying out five main principles.
(1) Persisting in the overall model of socialist democratic political construction
The democratic mechanism currently implemented in Vietnam is a system characterized by Party leadership, state management, and the people acting as masters of the country. The 6th National Congress of the CPV identified the relationship between Party leadership, the people as masters, and state management as the common mechanism for managing the entire society. The 6th Plenary Session of the 6th CPV Central Committee began using the concept of a "political system" and identified Party leadership, state management, and the people as masters as the overall operational model of the Vietnamese political system. The CPV believes that the organization and operation of the political system are intended to strengthen the Party's leadership role, improve the efficiency of state management, promote the people's status as masters, enhance the power and efficiency of the proletarian dictatorship, and make organizational operations within the political system more dynamic and effective. "Party leadership, state management, and the people as masters constitute the most significant and fundamental relationship in Vietnam’s political and legal life." Every National Congress since the 11th CPV National Congress has emphasized the need to grasp and properly handle the relationship between these three. The 13th National Congress of the CPV added the Fatherland Front [5] and other social organizations into this relationship, stipulating that "the Party leads, the state manages, and the Fatherland Front and other political-social organizations serve as the pillars for the people as masters of the country." Resolution No. 28, passed by the 6th Plenary Session of the 13th Central Committee, reiterated the strengthening and consolidation of this relationship, requiring "continued research to improve the overall model of the political system's organizational structure and ensure the smooth operation of the mechanism where the Party leads, the state manages, and the people are masters."
The Party, the state, and the people are three elements in a relationship of dialectical unity within the Vietnamese political system. The CPV leads the political system while simultaneously being a part of it; the Party's leadership is the prerequisite for ensuring the mechanism functions. The Party's organizational system is implemented in accordance with the state's organizational system, and it leads through the state. The responsibility of the state is to institutionalize the Party's propositions and line into policies and laws in a timely manner and to organize the thorough implementation of these policies and laws. State management is the key factor directly determining whether the mechanism operates successfully and efficiently. The people acting as masters is the core element of this model; the power of both the CPV and the state originates from the people.
The theory of Vietnamese socialist democracy organically unifies these three elements in the pursuit of the people's interests. Nguyen Phu Trong emphasized that through the political model of Party leadership, state management, and the people as masters, the Party's leadership style and the state's management style are continuously updated, making socialist democracy truly the goal and driving force of development, and creating the environment and conditions for the people to be masters in reality. "The relationship between the Party, the state, and the people is one where the goals and interests of each subject are unified; all lines of the Party and all policies, laws, and activities of the state are for the benefit of the people, with the people's happiness as the goal of the struggle." The nature of the CPV as the vanguard of the working class, the laboring people, and the Vietnamese nation determines its character of loyalty to the working class, the laboring people, and the interests of the nation. Only under the leadership of the CPV can a government belonging to the people be established, and only then can the people become the true masters. "The government represents the people in exercising the right to be masters, while also acting as the organizer and implementer of the Party's line; it institutionally guarantees that the people can exercise direct democracy or representative democracy and participate in the right to social management in all fields of social life."
(2) Grasping two pairs of important relationships in socialist democratic political construction
1. Correctly handling the relationship between democracy and solidarity
Vietnam's population of over 100 million is composed of 54 ethnic groups which, combined with the historical political tradition of North-South division [6], collectively shapes the unique challenges Vietnam faces in the process of developing socialist democracy. In promoting socialist democracy, Vietnam has always emphasized the importance of great national solidarity (全民族团结) and inner-Party solidarity. Solidarity is not only the basic prerequisite for democratic practice but also the key to condensing social consensus and avoiding social fragmentation. In the theory of Vietnamese socialist democracy, how to balance democratic practice with the relationship of solidarity has become an important issue.
The 9th National Congress of the CPV proposed that the primary driving force for national development is the solidarity of the people nationwide. To this end, the CPV and the government formulated a series of guiding principles: they fully affirmed the key role of businesspeople in promoting economic development and recognized the private economic sector as an important driving force for national economic development; in handling ethnic and cultural affairs, they emphasized the need to eliminate isolationist attitudes, stereotypes, and discrimination against religious believers, addressing religious issues within a broader framework and preventing acts that infringe upon the freedom of belief and religion; they showed a positive attitude toward overseas Vietnamese, creating favorable conditions for them to return and contribute to the country, encouraging investment in Vietnam, and placing special importance on attracting overseas Vietnamese intellectuals.
The report of the 13th National Congress of the CPV (hereinafter "the 13th Congress Report") particularly emphasized the combination of Great National Solidarity [7] with socialist democracy to ensure the implementation of the people's right to be masters: "leverage the strength of Great National Solidarity, and carry forward socialist democracy and the people's right to be masters." The strength of Great National Solidarity plays a key role in Vietnam's national development. The 13th Congress Report pointed out that although the COVID-19 pandemic caused severe socio-economic losses, under the correct leadership of the Party, the advantages of the socialist system, the coordinated participation of the political system, and the strong support of the people—relying on the strength of Great National Solidarity—Vietnam gradually and effectively controlled the pandemic, resumed production, business, and social activities, and stabilized the people's livelihoods. Therefore, the 13th Congress Report required all strata of the people to collectively serve the national interest. By fostering social consensus through socialist democracy and national solidarity, it emphasized that the next ten years should "widely practice and carry forward socialist democracy, the rights of the people as masters, and their role in self-governance, leveraging the strength of Great National Solidarity, boosting and strengthening the people's confidence, and condensing social consensus."
2. Correctly handling the relationship between democracy and the legal system and social order
The dissolution of the Soviet Union and the drastic changes in Eastern Europe at the end of the 20th century exerted a huge impact on the political situation in Vietnam. Differing opinions emerged within the CPV. In response, the CPV emphasized that deepening and expanding socialist democracy requires ensuring it proceeds in the correct direction. Therefore, under the leadership of the CPV, steps adapted to political and social conditions must be implemented prudently; only in this way can the people's right to be masters truly be ensured. Nguyen Van Linh [8] further pointed out: "Without centralization, discipline, and civic responsibility, democracy cannot be realized... True democracy opposes both autocracy and authoritarianism, as well as anarchism and liberalism." At the 5th Plenary Session of the 6th CPV Central Committee in June 1988, he noted that the most serious flaw in Party building was the "violation of the principle of democratic centralism" and that "expanding democracy must go hand in hand with strengthening discipline." He argued that "plots to use democracy and propaganda to oppose the cause of the Party and the people must be combated." At the 6th and 7th Plenary Sessions, he reiterated that "expanding democracy... must be combined with centralization and discipline," and that "privatization, 'pluralism' (多元化), and multi-party systems aimed at negating Marxism-Leninism, socialism, and CPV leadership will not be accepted."
The Seventh National Congress of the Communist Party of Vietnam (CPV) in 1991 initially clarified the relationship between democracy and the legal system, proposing that an essential condition for promoting democracy is the establishment and perfection of a system of legal institutions to guarantee democracy through the law. By raising the people's level of knowledge, legal literacy, and legal consciousness, democracy is to be realized in the practical lives of the people across all political, economic, cultural, and social fields. At the Ninth National Congress of the CPV, Nông Đức Mạnh formally proposed the construction of a "socialist law-governed state [9] of the people, by the people, and for the people," which was subsequently written into the 2001 Constitution (as amended). He advocated for reform and development within the framework of the rule of law to guarantee the rights and freedoms of the people, emphasizing that the promotion of democracy must proceed simultaneously with the maintenance of discipline, the strengthening of the legal system, the management of society according to law, the dissemination of education among the people, and the heightening of legal consciousness. The CPV holds that democracy and the legal system complement and interact with each other. To achieve social justice and stability, the democratic process must proceed within a legal framework, while the legal system requires democratic supervision to ensure justice and fairness.
The Thirteenth National Congress of the CPV incorporated "the relationship between practicing democracy and strengthening the legal system and upholding social discipline" into its congress report as a vital relationship to be grasped and handled well during the 2021–2030 period and beyond. It posits that "democracy and law, and the practice of democracy and the rule of law and social discipline, have a dialectical relationship of mutual interaction, dependence, and complementarity." The practice of socialist democracy is closely linked to, interdependent with, and foundational to the strengthening of the socialist legal system and the assurance of social order. The relationship between these three elements is as follows: "Strict adherence to the legal system is the factor that guarantees and maintains the practical implementation of the people's democratic rights; simultaneously, as the people's democratic practice is expanded and exerted, the legal system is strengthened and social discipline is more respected. Social discipline is the result of the legal system and its outward manifestation."
(III) Implementation of the three basic forms of socialist democratic political construction
The exercise of democracy under the conditions of the Communist Party of Vietnam as the ruling party is the prerequisite and foundation for Vietnam's democratic political construction. To maintain the prerequisite and foundation of one-party rule, it is essential to ensure the full exertion of democracy under the Party's leadership, implement the CPV's perspectives and theories on democracy in practice, and encourage the people to exercise their status and role as masters, aiming for the goal of "prosperous people, a strong nation, democracy, equity, and civilization." Building democracy under a one-party system is determined by the necessity of Vietnam's historical development; the economy is not the sole determinant of a political system, and diverse forms of economic ownership do not lead to a two-party or multi-party system. Furthermore, whether a system is democratic does not depends on a multi-party, two-party, or one-party system, but rather on which class interests the ruling party represents and for what purposes state power is utilized.
The Thirteenth National Congress of the CPV in 2021 clarified three forms of socialist democratic practice in Vietnam and emphasized the importance of "correctly and effectively implementing direct democracy, representative democracy, and especially grassroots democracy." In fact, starting from the Eighth National Congress, the CPV began exploring the realization of popular sovereignty through various forms of national governance, proposing a system to implement the people's position as masters of the country [10] by combining elected representatives with grassroots self-governance. By the Ninth National Congress, the CPV further emphasized the execution of democratic regulations and the expansion of direct democracy at the grassroots level, so that the people could more conveniently participate in social management and discuss and decide on important issues. In 2011, the Eleventh National Congress of the CPV proposed the gradual establishment of systems for representative (indirect) and direct democracy within the context of constructing and perfecting the socialist market economy and the socialist law-governed state. The 2013 Constitution of Vietnam stipulates: "The people exercise state power through the path of direct democracy, through representative democracy via National Assembly deputies and People's Council deputies, and through other state agencies." By the Twelfth National Congress, the CPV clearly proposed the task of "substantiating direct democracy and representative democracy and improving their quality."
"Direct democracy" is the form in which the people directly decide on vital issues and affairs of the nation and the territorial community; laws are passed directly without any mediation. The primary characteristic of the direct democracy form is its rapidity. Its main manifestations include: implementing the electoral system, allowing citizens to participate in national political activities through elections, and permitting citizens to vote for and be elected as deputies to national and local councils; guaranteeing the right to file complaints, appeals, petitions, and suggestions, whereby citizens have the right to recall elected representatives in whom they lack confidence, ensuring the effectiveness and representativeness of democracy; implementing a system for soliciting public opinion through mechanisms such as referendums, enabling citizens to directly express their views on major social and economic issues; and promoting citizen participation in state management and supervision, including participation in the drafting and discussion of laws to ensure that legislation reflects the will of the people, and participating in the supervision of public servants to ensure the correct exercise of government power.
"Representative democracy is exercised through the National Assembly and People's Councils at all levels, which are elected by the whole people." Vietnamese law stipulates that provinces and municipalities directly under the central government elect no fewer than three National Assembly deputies; these provinces and municipalities are further divided into several electoral units, with each unit electing no more than three deputies. Electoral committees and electoral groups are established from the central level down to grassroots units to lead electoral work. National Assembly deputies represent not only the voters of their original electoral unit but also the will and aspirations of the people of the entire country. Deputies must maintain close contact with voters, regularly report on their work to them, and accept their supervision. They collect and reflect voters' opinions, and they research, convey, and supervise the handling of public suggestions, appeals, and complaints by relevant agencies, informing the public of the final outcomes. The number of deputies and election methods for local People's Councils at all levels are implemented according to law, with meetings held regularly as required. Deputies of the People's Councils must also inform voters of meeting results after each session, convey and explain various resolutions passed by the Council, and mobilize and work alongside the public to actively implement these resolutions.
Grassroot democracy involves giving full play to the role and creativity of the masses at the grassroots level and implementing democratic systems. Vietnamese villages have a tradition of self-governance, which is one of their fundamental characteristics. Grassroots democracy provides the people with direct and extensive democratic rights; this is not only an important condition for realizing socialist democracy but also its purpose and essence. Grassroots democracy strengthens popular sovereignty: "In the cause of Vietnam's Đổi Mới (Renovation) [11] and the cause of building socialist democracy, the realization of grassroots democracy is one of the most urgent and important links." In 1998, the Politburo of the CPV Central Committee issued Directive No. 30 on the implementation of democracy at the grassroots, emphasizing that promoting the people's role as masters of the country at the grassroots is an important and urgent task and the key to building a state of the people and by the people. In 2022, the fourth session of the Fifteenth National Assembly of Vietnam passed the Law on the Implementation of Grassroots Democracy, which stipulates "the implementation of democracy in communes, wards, and towns; the implementation of democracy in agencies and units; the implementation of democracy in enterprises; and the responsibilities of organizations implementing grassroots democracy."
(IV) Implementation of the five main principles of socialist democratic political construction
The Sixth Plenary Session of the Sixth Central Committee of the CPV proposed five basic principles for Đổi Mới: "Persistence in the socialist path; persistence in Marxism-Leninism and Ho Chi Minh Thought; persistence in the dictatorship of the proletariat and the leadership of the Party; persistence in socialist democracy; and persistence in the combination of patriotism with proletarian internationalism, and national strength with the strength of the times under the new situation." As one of the basic principles of Đổi Mới, the construction of socialist democratic politics must follow the laws governing the development of socialist democratic politics and implement the "principle of popular sovereignty, the principle of the political party, the principle of the legal system, the principle of democratic centralism, and the principle of supervision."
First, the principle of popular sovereignty. The CPV attaches great importance to popular sovereignty, adhering to the concept of being of the people, by the people, and for the people. To realize this concept, Vietnam implements the Party's propositions and resolutions through the constitution and laws, striving to institutionalize and substantiate the principle of popular sovereignty. Article 4 of the 1959 Constitution, Article 6 of the 1980 Constitution, and Articles 2 and 6 of the 1992 Constitution all stipulate that all state power belongs to the people, and that the people exercise state power through the election of the National Assembly and People's Committees. The 2013 Constitution, the most recent revision, "provides a more comprehensive, profound, and institutionalized interpretation of the perspectives of the Vietnamese Party and State regarding the improvement of popular sovereignty, the promotion of the advantages of socialist democracy, and the assurance that all state power belongs to the people. This is the fundamental viewpoint running through the content of the Constitution, demonstrating that the source, essence, purpose, and strength of state power all come from the people and belong to the people, with the people being the highest subject of state power."
Second, the principle of Communist Party leadership over democratic political construction. The CPV believes that in a socialist democratic system, the leadership of the Communist Party is the primary factor ensuring the efficient operation of the democratic system, ensuring that the people truly control the state and become the core force dominating political power. The construction of democratic politics is unified with the mission and tasks of the CPV; adhering to the leadership of the Communist Party and the socialist road is the inevitable path for Vietnam's democratic development. The Twelfth National Congress of the CPV proposed the objectives of strengthening CPV Party building and exerting the power of socialist democracy. The report of this congress explicitly stated that the overall goals for the next five years include: "Strengthening the building of a clean and strong Party, improving the Party's leadership capacity, governing capacity, and combat effectiveness, and building a solid political system. Exerting the strength of the entire nation and socialist democracy," and emphasizing the renovation of the CPV's leadership methods. The Thirteenth National Congress of the CPV further emphasized "continuing to maintain and strengthen the absolute, direct, and comprehensive leadership of the Party" and frequently renovating the Party's leadership methods.
Third, the principle of democratic centralism. As the core organizational principle of socialist democratic politics, democratic centralism plays a crucial role in ensuring the formulation and execution of correct political lines, principles, and policies. "Only by highly promoting democracy can the full strength of the people be mobilized to advance the revolution; simultaneously, only with a high degree of centralization can the leadership of the people be unified to carry out socialist construction." Nguyễn Phú Trọng [12] emphasized: "Democracy is the condition and prerequisite for centralization, and centralization is the basis and guarantee for the implementation of democracy." The CPV takes democratic centralism as its principle of leadership and organization, realizing this principle within the Party through the combination of collective leadership and individual responsibility: collective leadership is democratic, while individual responsibility is centralized; together, they embody the principle of democratic centralism. Democratic centralism is not only the principle of leadership and organization for the CPV but also the organizational principle for the National Assembly, People's Councils, the Central Government, and all state agencies. In Vietnam's state management, the principles of democratic centralism—such as all power belonging to the people, subordinates obeying superiors, and local authorities obeying the central authority—are consistently implemented.
Fourth, the principle of the legal system. This principle emphasizes that the construction of democratic politics must proceed within the framework of the law, ensuring the organic combination of democracy and the legal system. The CPV believes that socialist democracy can only be truly guaranteed under the condition of building a socialist law-governed state, emphasizing the central role of the legal system in maintaining democratic political order and safeguarding citizens' rights and freedoms. Nguyễn Phú Trọng required that "we must continue to build and perfect the socialist law-governed state, realize democracy, and abide by the principles of the rule of law, while creating more active and effective transformations." Substantively, "the law in a socialist system is a tool for embodying and realizing the people's right to be masters of the country and for guaranteeing and maintaining the interests of the vast majority of the people. Through the implementation of the law, the state ensures that the people are the subjects of political power." Since the beginning of Đổi Mới, Vietnam has continuously promoted the modernization of its legal system, the reform of legal institutions, and the popularization of the concept of the rule of law. Not only does the principle of the rule of law run through the political process, but Vietnam has also guaranteed citizens' rights, established a legal framework for the market economy, and strengthened government transparency and accountability through the formulation and revision of various laws.
Fifth, the principle of checks and oversight on the exercise of power. The organization of Vietnamese state power follows the basic principle of the division of labor between "legislative, executive, and judicial" functions. Within the exercise of legislative, executive, and judicial powers by state organs, "state power is unified, yet characterized by division of labor, coordination, and oversight." Within the Vietnamese state apparatus, the National Assembly is the highest organ of state power. In addition to possessing the power to formulate the Constitution, legislate, and decide on major national issues, it also exercises the right of supreme oversight over all state activities. In 2003, the National Assembly of Vietnam passed the Law on Oversight Activities of the National Assembly, further standardizing its oversight and restraint of state power organs. In recent years, the role of the National Assembly within the Vietnamese political system has become increasingly important. At the 12th National Congress of the Communist Party of Vietnam (CPV), Nguyen Phu Trong emphasized the need to "continue innovating the organization and activities of the National Assembly to ensure it truly becomes the highest representative body of the people and the highest organ of state power," requesting that under the leadership of the CPV, the state must "continue to innovate and improve the efficacy and effectiveness of oversight, especially thematic oversight and interpellation activities."
Oversight by the Vietnam Fatherland Front (VFF) and other socio-political organizations [13] constitutes an important component of the oversight mechanism for state power. The 1992 Constitution of Vietnam prescribed the oversight functions of the Fatherland Front, and the 10th National Congress of the CPV in 2006 proposed the establishment of systems and mechanisms for oversight and social criticism [14]. In recent years, the CPV has formulated many guidelines and policies aimed at leveraging the leading and supervisory roles of the VFF and other socio-political organizations over state organs. The 2011 Platform clearly pointed out: "The Party and the State formulate policies and mechanisms to create conditions for the Fatherland Front and people's groups to effectively carry out activities and fulfill their roles in oversight and social criticism." Unlike the internal power oversight mechanisms within state organs, this external oversight mechanism is not coercive; rather, it transmits "information" to state organs through the form of recommendations or social public opinion. The 13th National Congress of the CPV emphasized: "Continue to renew the Party's leadership methods over the Fatherland Front and various socio-political organizations, ensuring the Party's centralized and unified leadership while respecting the principle of democratic consultation within the Fatherland Front's organization and activities, allowing the Fatherland Front and various socio-political organizations to vigorously exert their roles, autonomy, dynamism, and creativity." In summary, during the process of renovation (Doi Moi) [15], the CPV has formed a series of unique socialist democratic concepts and institutional arrangements based on new internal and external situations and problems. This has provided an important guarantee for the advancement of the country’s socialist democratic political construction and contributed theoretical insight and practical experience to the construction of a system of socialist democratic theory amidst the profound changes unseen in a century [16].