If ghosts do not exist in the world, where does ghost culture come from?
Language and writing are a hallmark of humanity as a biological species and the fundamental tool for communication and expressing one's thoughts. Without language and writing, it would be difficult for humans to reflect upon or accumulate knowledge and experience, let alone advance the innovation and development of human society step by step.
Investigating the status of atheism within the human context, and particularly within the development of Chinese society, is of great significance. This is no longer a purely academic issue, but a practical problem in urgent need of resolution.
At present, Chinese society is experiencing a "National Studies [1] fever" (guoxue re). From the "Lecture Room" [2] program hosted by television stations to the opening of "Confucius Institutes" and private traditional schools (sishu) locally and abroad, the atmosphere is permeated everywhere with an ill-defined "traditional culture." In the discourse of some individuals, terminology regarding the Study of Changes (yixue), feng shui, "ghost culture," and Guiguzi [3] is prevalent. It is no wonder some have authored articles suggesting we must "be vigilant against 'cultural melamine' [4]."
This article does not intend to launch a comprehensive assault on all the dross of traditional culture; I intend only to state some personal views on the issue of "ghost culture" for the consideration of my peers.
Perhaps driven by the idea of "elevating one's status," many affairs now fly under the banner of "culture." There are "liquor culture," "tea culture," "sex culture," "foot culture," "cigarette culture," and so on—the list is uncountable. Some even append the word "festival" to suggest high-grade refinement. However, "ghost culture" is something rarely heard of. Moreover, the one advocating and promoting "ghost culture" is no ordinary person, but a government official of considerable rank. According to reports, a deputy director of a certain department in the Ministry of Culture publicly asserted: "Some say ghosts are bad, but The Peony Pavilion, Du Shiniang, and Zhong Kui [5] are all 'ghost culture.' If Chongqing concentrates the nation's ghost culture and uses Sichuan Opera as its foundation, it can become a brand name that the whole nation will come to see." Not only this, but the Chongqing side is preparing to invest the massive sum of 700 million RMB to restore the "Fengdu Ghost City [6]." This is truly difficult to comprehend and necessitates further commentary. Is this the promotion of traditional Chinese culture? Where has atheism gone?
There is no need to search for definitions. Anyone with an atheist outlook will question in unison: since there are no ghosts in this world, whence comes "ghost culture"? One point has long been clear: ghosts and gods are linked together. Where there are ghosts, there must be gods; the objects of divine capture are precisely ghosts. The emergence of the theory of gods and ghosts occurred under conditions of extremely low productive forces. People did not understand the ruggedness and hardships encountered in their progress and could not resist the disasters met in social life. They developed a state of fear, believing that ghosts were causing trouble, and could only seek help from the gods. This idealist and theistic concept is the product of autocratic slave and feudal systems. In slave and feudal societies, characterized by a lack of democracy and the rule of law, the words of emperors and administrative officials carried the weight of the bronze tripod [7]. Ancient monarchs always used theistic concepts as a tool to rule the people and control the spiritual world. Throughout successive dynasties, Chinese monarchs—and even peasant uprisings—would raise the banner of "reverencing the gods and exterminating the demons." Consequently, the ghost is a symbol of the sinister, treacherous, terrifying, and evil. In the contest between justice and evil, the kind-hearted populace could only seek solace for their souls in the protection of the divine and the destruction of the demons. This is why thousands upon thousands of volumes concerning gods and ghosts exist within traditional culture.
But what fortune could these tales of gods and ghosts bring to the masses? Xianglin's Wife, from the pen of Mr. Lu Xun [8], is a typical example. She believed in the gods and prayed for divine assistance to find her son, Amao, and protect their peaceful life. However, she was cast out the door by Fourth Master Lu—who likewise believed in gods and ghosts—until she was no longer even qualified to be a servant. Even if characters like Li Huiniang [9] appear on the stage of "ghost plays"—though they lack the terrifying image of green faces and fangs—these are merely images of people's fantasies of resisting the old system under conditions where resistance was impossible. They are of no significance to the promotion of social progress. In my childhood, I often went to the Shanghai City God Temple to play. I saw the statues of the underworld; my eyes were filled with ghosts with red whiskers and white powdered faces who were disemboweling and heart-gouging kind people. This left an impression of gloom and terror on my young mind: that one must surrender when encountering danger, that no independent thought was permitted, and that there was no place for reason. From these examples, one can see what role the propagation of gods and ghosts can play in social development. Although the theory of gods and ghosts was once an objective existence, it is ultimately a "spiritual heroin" that poisons humanity and hinders social development.
Precisely because the essence of the god-and-ghost theory is so determined, the atheists of ancient China also strove to set things right (boluan fanzheng) [10]. The Analects contains the warning: "The Master did not speak of the strange, the chaotic, the feats of strength, or the spirits." Among the Four Great Classical Novels of China, only Journey to the West involves demons, yet they all fall under the strikes of Sun Wukong. Even concerning the Strange Tales from a Chinese Studio (Liaozhai Zhiyi), many of its chapters do not describe ghosts or gods. A preface from the Kangxi reign [11] states: "I say that whether a matter be ordinary or strange, that which is harmful to people is a demon... Observing that which Liuxian [12] has written, his judgments on the great principles are all based on the aim of rewarding good and punishing vice and being at peace with righteousness and fate; it is sufficient to 'uncover the hidden and accomplish the task'..." It is evident that the intent of Liaozhai in discussing ghosts is to "reward good and punish vice." As for ancient writings on the non-existence of ghosts, they are not rare. For example, Fan Zhen of the Northern and Southern Dynasties stated in his Treatise on the Extinction of the Soul: "If the form exists, the soul exists; if the form withers, the soul is extinguished." The In Search of the Supernatural (Soushen Ji) records an interesting story: "Ruan Zhan, whose courtesy name was Qianli, was a lifelong adherent of the theory of the non-existence of ghosts, and no one could refute him. He always said this reasoning was sufficient to distinguish the light from the dark. Suddenly, a guest announced his name and visited Zhan. After the customary greetings, they chatted about 'Dark Learning' (mingli). The guest was very talented in debate. Zhan spoke with him for a long time, and when they reached the matter of ghosts and gods, they went back and forth with great difficulty. The guest was finally cornered. He then changed his expression and said: 'Ghosts and gods have been passed down by the sages of old and today; how can you alone say they do not exist? I myself am a ghost.' Thereupon, he transformed into a strange shape and vanished in an instant." It turns out this guest was also a ghost; unable to defeat Ruan Zhan’s argument on the non-existence of ghosts, he revealed his original form and disappeared. From this, we can see that even the ghosts and monsters themselves have to bow before the theory of the non-existence of ghosts. What necessity is there for us to build a stage for "ghost culture"?
The long river of history has flowed to the present day, and the human world is bright with science. The advanced thinkers of humanity have already clearly explained the reasons for and the dangers of the theory of gods and ghosts. As human society has developed into the modern era, the people of the world have become clear that "there has never been any Savior, nor any gods or emperors" [13]. The materialist and atheist worldview has spread throughout the world, bringing rich material and joyous spirit to humanity. Particularly with the wide application of high technology, people are already able to enjoy a rich spiritual life. In such a social environment, what necessity is there to make such a large investment, under the name of promoting traditional culture, to propagate that "spiritual heroin"? We do not deny that the theory of gods and ghosts was once an objective existence, and that some literary and art workers used the image of ghosts and gods to resist feudal autocracy. However, we can only treat this special phenomenon with historical and materialist concepts; it is not impermissible for a tiny minority of experts to conduct materialist historical research. Naturally, there is no need to delude the public with claims that "ghost culture is the precursor of human spiritual culture." Because of the current "National Studies fever" flowing through the land of China (Shenzhou), many officials do not believe in Marxism or advanced culture, but instead believe in ghosts, gods, and feng shui; sorceresses and god-men wander everywhere; some places do not build science and technology museums, but instead build temples to gods and ghosts. This situation, where "spiritual heroin" is spreading everywhere, forces us to call for the use of various rational and legal means to sweep away the theory of gods and ghosts.
History, after all, advances continuously; no one can block this tide. In contemporary China, we advocate for "rejuvenating the country through science and education," ruling the country by democracy and law, and using the Scientific Outlook on Development [14] to create China's future. Before such a goal, if one does not promote advanced culture, but instead drags out the "spiritual heroin" of "ghost culture," what is the intent? what results will it bring to the scientific development of society? Do they really fantasize about turning back the wheels of history?
About the Author: Chen Zuajia is a senior reporter for the People's Daily.