Atheism is the crystallization of human social civilization and reflection
Atheism is the crystallization of human civilization and social reflection. In the West, the term specifically refers to the negation of a monotheistic deity (such as God) and His theology; in China, it refers to the negation of the objective existence of all ghosts, spirits, superstitions, and supernatural powers. It is manifested both elementarily in secular life—through productive labor, scientific experimentation, and everyday human activities—and theoretically in various materialist or non-religious trends of thought that resist and negate theism.
The emergence and development of atheism are inextricably linked to the historical progress of human society. In class societies, the ruling classes often utilize religious forces to maintain their own rule; consequently, social forces demanding changes to the social system frequently carry out ideological struggles aimed at critiquing religious theology. For this reason, the debate between atheism and theism often carries a significant political color. However, providing a theoretical explanation for supernatural phenomena—such as whether ghosts and spirits exist, or whether God exists—is a philosophical question and is closely related to the natural sciences. Natural science is an important foundational stone for atheism, and its advancement propels the development of atheism forward.
Beyond social factors, the question of theism versus atheism also involves the realm of human spiritual life, including many complex cognitive and psychological factors. Both theism and atheism will coexist within human society for a long time. Within the realm of philosophical categories, atheism and theism constitute a community of contradictions, existing in mutual dependence. In an 1884 letter to Bernstein, Engels wrote: "Atheism, as a mere negation of religion, refers all the time to religion and is itself nothing without the latter." [1] In my view, from the perspective of philosophical logic, the philosophical mission of atheism is to critique the illusions of religious theology, establish a scientific worldview and system of values, and promote the development of human society. As an abstract philosophical category, it will exit the stage of history alongside the eventual demise of religion.
With the progression of human history, the shifting balance of social forces, and the continuous development of the natural and social sciences, the theoretical forms of atheism—both in China and abroad, throughout ancient and modern times—have exhibited a complex and multifaceted character.
I. Atheism in the History of Chinese Philosophy
The culture of the Chinese nation has always exhibited a style of pluralistic compatibility—that is, a "harmony in diversity" [2] between rich humanistic concepts and supernatural mystical thought where polytheism and atheist ideas coexist. Guanzi proposed: "Take the people as the foundation; when the foundation is governed, the state is stable; when the foundation is in chaos, the state is in peril." [3] Mencius advocated that "the people are of supreme importance, the altars of the gods of earth and grain come next, and the ruler is the least important." [4] The concept that "the people are the foundation of the state; when the foundation is firm, the state is at peace" [5] is a traditional idea that has persisted for thousands of years. Regarding the Confucian culture that has long held a dominant position, I agree with the argument that it possesses a "practical spirit of active engagement with the world" and a humanistic orientation of "keeping the gods at a distance while remaining close to people." [6] Most figures in ancient China with atheist inclinations were Confucian scholars.
Many outstanding atheists emerged in the history of ancient Chinese philosophy. During the pre-Qin period, there were Xunzi and Han Fei. Xunzi critiqued the worship of celestial deities and the theology of heavenly mandates, transforming the personified "Heaven" into a natural Heaven, and proposed the idea of "conquering Heaven"—that is, "regulating the mandate of Heaven and making use of it." [7] Building on the negation of the existence of ghosts and spirits, Han Fei further opposed the practice of "founding social instruction upon the way of the gods." [8] During the Eastern Han period, Wang Chong, based on a materialist view of nature, critiqued the theology of "interaction between Heaven and mankind" [9] found in the chenwei [10] prophetic texts; based on a materialist view of the relationship between form and spirit, he negated the superstitious belief that humans become ghosts after death. During the Northern and Southern Dynasties, Fan Zhen provided a profound demonstration of the materialist theory of "extinction of the soul," arguing that form and spirit are inseparable and that the spirit is a function of the material form, thereby critiquing the Buddhist theory of the immortality of the soul. Thinkers such as Liu Zongyuan and Liu Yuxi of the Sui and Tang dynasties, Zhang Zai of the Song, Wang Tingxiang of the Ming, and Wang Fuzhi and Huang Zongxi of the Qing all critiqued religious and superstitious concepts, enriching ancient China’s elementary atheist thought.
The spirit of "science and democracy" advocated by the May Fourth Movement in modern China included opposition to superstition regarding ghosts and spirits and the promotion of atheism. The May Fourth spirit, which includes scientific atheism, became one of the ideological markers of China's entry into the modern era.
In the academic circles of modern China, the renowned scholar Zhang Taiyan was the first to use the concept of atheism. He directed his edge against monotheism, such as Christianity. Against the historical backdrop of modern China's struggle for national salvation and cultural enlightenment, key thinkers of the May Fourth period, such as Chen Duxiu and Hu Shih, used Western atheist ideas to critique "spiritualism" [11] and break through the ideological shackles of feudal superstition; they critiqued monotheistic theism like Christianity and launched the "Anti-Christian Movement" to resist imperialist cultural aggression.
The spread of scientific atheism in China was an important ideological prerequisite for the birth of the Communist Party of China. Early CPC leaders such as Li Dazhao, while disseminating Marxism, also regarded the propagation of scientific atheism as their vital mission. Li Dazhao pointed out: "Religion cannot seek truth" and is "a tremendous obstacle to human progress." [12] Only by critiquing religious views of ghosts and gods can a scientific Marxist worldview be established.
II. Atheism in the History of Western Philosophy
In the Encyclopædia Britannica, contemporary Western philosophers consider atheism to be "a philosophical program for which the denial of God is the first principle." [13]
The origins of Western atheist thought lie in Ancient Greece. The Enlightenment thinkers of Ancient Greece opposed traditional religion, proposing a materialist worldview and an enlightened atheism. They reduced the birth and death of all things in nature to the combination and separation of material substances (arche). They explained nature through nature itself, replacing the divine will with human reason. This natural philosophy, possessing an enlightening significance, inspired people to explore new paths for knowing nature and understanding human life. Many thinkers broke free from superstition regarding traditional religion, conducting rational inquiries into the essence of the gods and the origin and function of religion. From Ancient Greece to Ancient Rome, there appeared atheist thinkers such as Democritus, Epicurus, Lucretius, and Lucian. Epicurus is considered the "father of atheism" in the West. Engels pointed out: "the final form of Greek philosophy—especially the Epicurean school—developed into atheist materialism." [14]
During the Middle Ages, Christian theology held a position of absolute dominance within the superstructure, and it was nearly impossible for atheism to exist openly. The Christian theological system established "monotheism" as the defining characteristic of "religion." In this religious cultural context, any trend of thought that denied or opposed "monotheism" was labeled atheism. Certain forms of pantheism that opposed orthodox theology occasionally flashed with sparks of atheist thought and were consequently condemned as heresy by the Church. During the Middle Ages, atheism was branded as "evil" and was a primary justification for execution at the stake. In 1619, the Italian Inquisition sentenced the philosopher Vanini to be burned at the stake on the charge of "propagating atheism." The association of atheism with "evil" is an influence that has yet to fully subside.
With the development of modern social sciences and productive forces, a group of emerging bourgeois thinkers appeared in modern Western Europe. They opposed feudal autocracy and its spiritual pillar—Christian theology—and moved toward atheism through various forms. During the modern era, Western trends such as skepticism, pantheism, mechanical materialist atheism, deism, militant atheism, and humanistic atheism surged forward.
During the Renaissance, humanism emphasized human value, diminished the status of the divine, opposed religious asceticism, and viewed the pursuit of material interests as consistent with human nature. These ideas of enlightening significance helped people emerge from the confinement of medieval Christian theology.
From the 16th to the 17th centuries, pantheism exerted widespread influence in Europe. This was a trend of thought transitioning from theism to atheism. Spinoza used logical reasoning to demonstrate that God is Nature and that divine providence is natural law, fundamentally negating a supernatural God who rules the world. He used historical and linguistic methods of textual criticism to study and critique the Bible.
In the 17th century, experimental science centered on mechanical physics combined with atomic materialism to develop into mechanical materialist philosophy and atheism. It explained all things in nature through the mechanical combination of material particles, excluding the action of God from nature. Hobbes developed this worldview into an explicit atheism. He negated non-material spiritual substances, insisting that there is only one type of material substance whose essence is extension, thereby negating the existence of things like God and the soul.
From the 17th to the 18th centuries, deism arose in Britain, and this philosophical trend had a broad impact on Europe and America. Representative figures included Voltaire and Rousseau in France. Deists opposed basing religion on mysterious "revelations" and "miracles," asserting that the innate reason of humanity is the foundation of religion, and attempting to replace traditional revealed religion with rational religion. They generally acknowledged the existence of God and the creation of the world by God, but argued that after creation, the world was left to operate according to rational natural laws. Marx said that deism is "a convenient and easy way of getting rid of religion." [15]
The 18th-century French Enlightenment was an era of atheism's triumphant march. The growing strength of the French bourgeoisie emboldened its thinkers to openly resist traditional religion and Church rule. New achievements in natural science and the development of materialist philosophy provided the conditions to overcome the inconsistencies of pantheism and deism, allowing them to develop into militant atheism. Atheism during this period emphasized the dignity of reason, opposed the spiritual enslavement of fideism, and relentlessly critiqued religious dogma and the theological worldview. It openly and thoroughly negated the existence of God and the immortality of the soul, examined the essence, origin, and social function of religion critically, and profoundly exposed the corruption of the Church and the hypocrisy of the clergy, preparing public opinion for the French Revolution. The primary representatives of French atheism included Diderot, Helvétius, and Holbach. Holbach’s The System of Nature was hailed as the "Bible of Materialism." He believed: "It is only by dispelling the clouds and phantoms of religion, that we shall discover Truth, Reason, and Morality." [16]
German Classical Philosophy in the 19th century held high the spirit of rationalism. Although Kant and Hegel were not atheists, the German Classical Philosophy they represented expressed a political critique of the feudal system in a roundabout way through a rational examination of religious theology, possessing the character of rational enlightenment. Through agnosticism, Kant expressed doubt toward the basic tenets of religious theology—such as the existence of God, the immortality of the soul, and the freedom of the will—shaking the theoretical foundations of religious theology. Hegel replaced the God of traditional religion with the "Absolute Idea" of rationalism, attempting to place religion under the dominion of rational philosophy. Feuerbach restored the authority of materialism in Germany and proposed humanistic atheism. He believed that all attributes and the essence of God in religion are the alienation of human nature; it is not that God created man, but that man created God in his own image. This thoroughly negated the existence of God and the sacred origin of religion, reducing it to a secular basis. Feuerbach’s humanistic atheism provided the intellectual resources for the scientific atheism of Marxism.
The atheist trends in modern the West, due to their distinct character of opposing the feudal system and critiquing theological politics, are referred to as "militant atheism." During the period when Western capitalist state systems were being established, it played a massive role in liberating thought, serving as a cornerstone for democratic constitutionalism and individual liberty. Because it adopted the achievements of modern natural science and used the scientific spirit and methods as weapons, thereby promoting scientific development, it is also called "scientific atheism."
New achievements in natural science—particularly the strong and lasting impact of Darwin’s theory of evolution on religious theology—became the driving force for various atheist trends of thought. Various specific sciences introduced the concept of natural evolution into scientific research, negating the creation of the world by God and His intervention in natural processes. The critique of religion by natural science often developed into philosophical atheism. The British philosopher Bertrand Russell believed that only natural science can provide legitimate and valid knowledge, and it provides no basis for beliefs such as God or the immortality of the soul. He stated, "Religion is based, I think, primarily and mainly upon fear," and humanity should continuously develop the natural and social sciences to liberate itself from all fear. [17]
The primary form of atheism in the 20th century is "humanism." This trend is reflected in various philosophical and intellectual schools, such as psychoanalysis, pragmatism, logical positivism, existentialism, and secular humanism. According to the theories of Freud, the founder of psychoanalysis, religion is entirely the result of psychological frustration (neurosis). Logical positivism also vehemently negated God, arguing that "God" is a meaningless and unknowable concept.
Many modern Western atheistic thinkers advocate for the replacement of "the way of God" with "the way of humanity." The American pragmatist philosopher Dewey believed that the natural world is the foundation of all things and denied the existence of God. In 1933, Dewey and others published the Humanist Manifesto, defining humanism as "the belief in the supreme value of the human being and their capacity for self-improvement." The most radical representative of humanistic atheism was the French philosopher Sartre. Sartre said, "Man is complete: completely free and completely responsible." {13} Human freedom is the source and foundation of morality. If God existed, God would negate human freedom. He stated that existentialism is "nothing but an attempt to draw all conclusions from a consistently atheistic position." {14} In the current of modern Western atheistic thought, Sartre’s humanistic atheism is highly representative.
At the beginning of this century, facing the resurgence of global religious fundamentalism and neo-fundamentalism, the interference of religion in politics and education strengthened, and religious factors intensified in social conflicts around the world. This stimulated the re-emergence of contemporary Western "New Atheism" and secular humanist trends of thought. This fresh intellectual force made the public aware that criticizing religion through scientific and rational methods helps to dispel the haze created by religious conservative forces in recent years.
In 2006, after the publication of The God Delusion by Richard Dawkins, a professor at Oxford University in the UK, it occupied the New York Times non-fiction bestseller list for a full year. More than 1.5 million copies of the English version of this atheistic work have been issued, and it has been translated into 32 languages. The author argues that God is a "delusion" primarily from the perspective of a biologist, and cites the famous aphorism by the contemporary American philosopher Robert Pirsig: "When one person suffers from a delusion, it is called insanity. When many people suffer from a delusion, it is called religion." {15}
III. Marxist Scientific Atheism
Marxist atheism is the advanced form of scientific atheism and represents a magnificent sunrise in the history of human thought. It inherited the achievements of elite human thought, such as British and French materialism of the 17th and 18th centuries and the humanism of Feuerbach in 19th-century Germany, and manifested itself through the discovery of the materialist conception of history and the theory of surplus value. As the starting point and cornerstone of the Marxist worldview, scientific atheism moved from the field of ideology and culture into the practice of the scientific socialist movement.
Starting from Feuerbach's view that man alienates the religious world from himself, Marx and Engels went further to explore the social basis of religious production. They discovered that religion, as an inverted worldview, is rooted in the existence of an inverted world—namely, a society where man exploits and oppresses man. They pointed out that purely criticizing religion cannot overcome religious alienation; only by further eliminating the social systems and social conditions that produce religious alienation can it be possible to overcome that alienation. Thus, Marx and Engels shifted from the critique of religion to the critique of politics, law, and society, developing from rationalist Enlightenment atheism into the scientific atheism of dialectical materialism and historical materialism.
The German Ideology, co-authored by Marx and Engels, established the materialist conception of history. Regarding the methodology of social science, the creation of the materialist conception of history was an epoch-making transformation. Marx expanded Feuerbach’s thought on religious critique—that "religion is the alienation of the human essence"—into the result of two types of "alienation." One is the self-alienation of the human essence into an external "sacred image," namely illusory concepts such as God, the kingdom of heaven, and salvation; the other is the self-alienation of the human essence into a "non-sacred image," namely the material and social environment in which people live—specifically, the irrational system of exploitation. Feuerbach's Enlightenment thought only revealed the first type of alienation, while Marx not only elucidated the connotations of both but also argued that the second type of alienation is the foundation of the first. To eliminate the alienation of the human essence by religion, one must transform the social system and economic base upon which it relies.
In the cause of founding the Soviet socialist state, Lenin inherited and developed Marxist atheism. In practice, this atheism was an ideological weapon for criticizing Russian theocracy and an important measure for preventing and purging religious erosion within the workers' party. In theory, Lenin specifically criticized the fallacies of religious thinking from a philosophical foundation—namely, from the perspective of materialism and dialectical epistemology. His sharp edge was directed at Plato, Aristotle (who were revered as philosophical foundations by Christian theology), and Neo-Kantian philosophy (widely utilized by modern theology), revealing the epistemological roots of religious theology and making important contributions to the exploration of the materialist dialectical method of thinking.
The social conditions of China determine the practical direction of the Sinicization of Marxist atheism. Unlike the cultural traditions of Western societies, the Chinese nation has possessed rich humanist trends and diverse, compatible religious beliefs throughout its thousands of years of history. Secular political power has always dominated ecclesiastical power; religion could only submit to the rule of secular power and never became an independent socio-political force, existing in society primarily as a cultural mode. Therefore, in China's New Democratic Revolution and socialist construction, the religious issue has never been the primary social problem. Facing China's specific realities, Chinese Communists incorporated the religious issue into the framework of the United Front [18] and properly resolved religious problems within the revolutionary cause.
Accordingly, the Sinicization of Marxist atheism has formed two basic principles: First, guaranteeing complete freedom of religion at the level of belief. At the socio-political and economic levels, religion must adapt to the general interests of the Chinese people and the historical process of social development; it is not permitted to use religion to threaten national security or ethnic unity, nor to use religion to subvert the socialist system. This strictly distinguishes issues of belief from issues of politics. Second, while the concept of religious theism is erroneous and opposed to science and materialism, it belongs to the category of worldview and ideological issues. It cannot be solved by administrative means but only through persuasion and education; furthermore, it must be primarily through actual social transformation that believers make their own conscious decisions. "Drawing the bow without discharging the arrow, yet poised for the leap" [19]—this is said in relation to the masses. In the fields of ideology, culture, and education, regarding "cultural theology" that competes for cultural positions and the hearts of the youth, it is necessary to distinguish right from wrong and conduct theoretical critique—civilization's "researching religion and criticizing theology." [20]
I believe that in contemporary China, the important values of Marxist atheism lie in the following three points:
First, Marxist atheism is the worldview starting point and cornerstone of the socialist core values. Strengthening the research, propaganda, and education of scientific atheism means strengthening the starting point and cornerstone of socialist ideology. Atheism is the source and premise of Marxist materialism; to dissolve atheism from Marxism is to castrate Marxism. Marxist materialism (dialectical and historical) raised atheism to a brand-new philosophical foundation and integrated it into the practice of the scientific socialist movement, thereby making its atheism distinct from and superior to other forms of atheism. An atheistic and materialist worldview is the most fundamental basis for the words and deeds of Communists. Only on this foundation can one master the higher-level theories within the Marxist theoretical system. Similarly, it is the philosophical foundation of the socialist core value system. Socialist core values believe that the masses of the people are the creators of history, rather than following creationism. "Putting people first" is the governing philosophy of Communists, and its essence is atheistic.
Within the socialist core value system, the atheistic materialist worldview and proactive outlook on life occupy an important position. The Party Central Committee has repeatedly pointed out: we must consolidate the guiding position of Marxism and increase the attraction and cohesion of socialist ideology; the role of scientific atheism must not be ignored. For some time, there has been a type of public opinion attempting to strip atheism away from the Marxist view of religion and socialist ideology; this is dangerous. It neither conforms to the secularization trend of human history and the contemporary era, nor does it align with China's humanist tradition.
Second, scientific atheism is a happy way of life and an important path for building a harmonious society. Theistic thinking is a fallacy. Investigating why human cognition produces such fallacies, how to avoid them, and how to establish correct modes of thinking are inherent meanings within the study of scientific atheism. There is an inherent tension between theistic organizations and secular society; their certain exclusivity and closed nature can easily lead to social isolation and discord between people. Its communication and interaction with "divinity" affect the normal psychology and life of human nature. Contemporary atheism advocates a proactive secular way of life, establishing a society of mental health, optimism, and interpersonal harmony on the basis of labor production, self-reliance, self-improvement, and self-respect. Promoting this proactive social lifestyle is an important way for contemporary scientific atheism to participate in building a harmonious society.
Third, as long as scientific atheism is thorough, it will inevitably lead to a rational social system. The education and propaganda of scientific atheism must formulate corresponding programs and strategies and be incorporated into the cause of building socialism with Chinese characteristics.
Compared with previous atheistic thoughts, Marxist atheism is reflected not only in its depth of ideological theory but primarily in its practice within the scientific socialist movement and its inevitable connection with the communist ideal. According to the Marxist perspective, the primary reason organized religion exists is the existence of irrational social systems. While education and propaganda regarding atheism are certainly necessary and must not be weakened, the fundamental path to eliminating the social phenomenon of religious theism is to eliminate the actual social conditions upon which such phenomena exist. Real society is composed of many factors: economy, society (in the narrow sense, referring to social security, urbanization, etc.), politics, culture, and more. Contrary to the "culturalist" approach of "simply striking down religion," Communists must unite people from all walks of life, including both atheists and theists, to work together to eradicate the social roots of religion and strive for the creation of an ideal communist society. During this considerably long historical stage, depending on different countries and degrees of social development, Communists must formulate corresponding programs and strategies to incorporate the education and propaganda of scientific atheism into the cause of building socialism with Chinese characteristics.