Reflections on the Sinicization of the Marxist View of Religion
A view of religion refers to the basic understanding people have of religion and the fundamental attitudes they manifest toward it as a result. The core of a view of religion is the question of how to perceive religion and how to treat religion; the former is a matter of cognition, while the latter is a matter of methodology. Regarding the Marxist view of religion, understood in a narrow sense, it refers to the basic viewpoints on major issues such as the essential roots, social functions, and developmental laws of religion constructed by Marx and Engels with historical materialism as their theoretical foundation [1]. Understood in a broad sense, it refers generally to "the historical materialist view of religion as a continuous process of development" [2], which includes the narrow Marxist view of religion as well as the Leninist view of religion and the view of religion held by the Communist Party of China.
I. Major Thoughts within the Marxist View of Religion
(A) The view of religion founded by Marx and Engels
Basic theories concerning religion. (1) Explaining religion through the principle of the relationship between social existence and social consciousness. "The mode of production of material life conditions the general process of social, political, and intellectual life. It is not the consciousness of men that determines their existence, but their social existence that determines their consciousness" [3]. (2) Both the origin and development of religion are determined by the material living conditions of the society upon which religion depends; changes in economic relations determine changes in religious relations. "The materialist conception of history explains all historical events and ideas, all politics, philosophy, and religion, based on the material, economic conditions of life of a given historical period" [4]. (3) In class society, it is necessary to use the method of class analysis to explain human relations, thereby revealing the social functions and historical role of religion. These thoughts are a full reflection of the basic principles of historical materialism, forming the theoretical foundation of the Marxist view of religion and the fundamental distinction between the Marxist view and all previous old views of religion.
Basic viewpoints concerning religion. These mainly involve viewpoints on the essence, origins, and social role of religion, as well as its formation, development, and ultimate demise. First, regarding the essence of religion: Engels pointed out, "all religion, however, is nothing but the fantastic reflection in men’s minds of those external forces which control their daily life, a reflection in which the terrestrial forces assume the form of supernatural forces" [5]. Second, regarding the primary causes of the emergence and development of religion: The cause of natural religion is the inability of human beings to correctly understand nature. Oppressed by the alien forces of nature, they developed feelings of dependence, fear, and mystery, which in turn formed an illusory reflection of consciousness. The reason religion exists and develops in class society is that laborers are in a state of "all relations in which man is a debased, enslaved, abandoned, despicable being" [6]; it lies in the fact that some people in objective real life, "despairing of material deliverance, they looked for a spiritual one, a consolation in their minds, to save them from utter despair" [7]. The cognitive roots of the emergence of religion are idealism and metaphysics. Third, the socio-historical role of religion: In class society, religion generally plays a negative role by intoxicating the people’s spirit. First, it is a spiritual tool for the ruling class to maintain its rule; religion is the "general ground for consolation and justification" [8] of the existing system, and simultaneously an important means for the ruling class to exercise spiritual control over the ruled. Second, for believers—especially the ruled—religion is an opium that fosters illusions, weakens the fighting spirit, erodes the will, and numbs the self. Marx provided a classic exposition on this: "Religious suffering is, at one and the same time, the expression of real suffering and a protest against real suffering. Religion is the sigh of the oppressed creature, the heart of a heartless world, and the soul of soulless conditions. It is the opium of the people" [9]. However, under certain historical conditions, religion has served as a banner, weapon, and cloak for social reforms or resistance movements, playing a certain positive role. Fourth, the viewpoint on the demise of religion: Religion will inevitably fade away gradually with the development of society, but the demise of religion is a protracted and painful historical process. This requires certain social conditions: first, that relations between human beings become extremely clear and rational; second, that the relationship between humans and nature becomes extremely clear and rational; and third, that humans achieve all-round development—that is, "when man no longer merely proposes, but also disposes—only then will the last alien force which is still reflected in religion vanish" [10]. Regarding the mode of religious demise, Engels believed it could only "die a natural death" slowly as the historical conditions for its demise gradually matured.
Policy principles toward religion. First, scientific socialism and religious theism are antithetical in their worldviews. It was proposed that "the principle that religion is a purely private matter as far as the state is concerned should be implemented" [11], advocating for the complete separation of church and state, and the separation of school and church. Second, the proletarian party must implement freedom of religious belief. Third, the party opposes the use of administrative orders and police measures to prohibit religion.
(B) Lenin's major thoughts on the development of the Marxist view of religion
In the process of leading the Russian Revolution, Lenin, while adhering to the basic principles of the Marxist view of religion and integrating them with the reality of the Russian Revolution and Russia’s national conditions, expounded a series of important viewpoints on religious issues, achieving the inheritance and development of the Marxist view of religion under new historical conditions. These thoughts mainly include:
First, adhering to the guiding position of historical materialism: "We must know how to combat religion, and to do this we must explain the source of faith and religion among the masses in a materialist way" [12].
Second, the roots of the existence of religion in modern capitalist countries. 1. The main root of religion’s existence in modern capitalist countries is the "social root"; "the deepest root of religion today is the socially downtrodden condition of the working masses and their apparently complete helplessness in the face of the blind forces of capitalism" [13]. 2. Class roots and cognitive roots: "The deepest source of religious prejudice is poverty and ignorance" [14].
Third, the negative role of religion in class society. 1. Lenin further emphasized its role as a spiritual tool for maintaining class rule, noting that "the priest consoles the oppressed... thereby leading them to endure such rule, to abandon revolutionary action, to douse their revolutionary enthusiasm, and to destroy their revolutionary determination" [15]. 2. In class society, religious leaders are part of the exploiting class, and church organizations are institutions subordinate to the state of the exploiting class. 3. For the ruled classes, "religion is opium for the people. Religion is a sort of spiritual booze, in which the slaves of capital drown their human image, their demand for a life more or less worthy of man" [16].
Fourth, the policy principles for a Marxist party in handling religious issues. 1. Clearly draw the line between scientific socialism and religion. One "must be good at struggling against religion" [17], yet the "struggle against religious prejudices" "must be conducted with great care" [18]; the handling of religious issues must be subordinate to the general task of the socialist cause. 2. Religion is a private matter in relation to the state, but it is not a private matter in relation to the party of the working class: (a) advocate for freedom of religious belief; (b) eliminate religious privileges and implement a system of separation between the church and the state, and between the church and schools; (c) oppose "Leftist" errors that involve the forced prohibition or even extermination of religion through administrative means; (d) strengthen atheistic propaganda and education for Party members and the masses. 3. Pay attention to winning over and uniting progressive figures in religious circles.
The classical writers Marx and Engels primarily analyzed religion from socio-economic and political dimensions. Their political, critical, and negative attitudes toward religion were quite prominent, which also influenced their understanding of the social role of religion. They viewed religion as a political ideology—the "opium" of the people. Although they both analyzed the role of religion in class society and pointed out that religion has a dual nature—both negative and positive—they mostly focused on the negative role, believing that the negative impact of religion on society outweighed the positive. They did not conduct a systematic analysis of the role of religion in a socialist society. After Lenin, socialist countries, including China, basically implemented these principles founded by Marx and Engels and developed by Lenin. These principles significantly influenced the theoretical understanding and revolutionary practice of Chinese Communists. In handling religious issues, they accumulated valuable experience, but also encountered many failures and learned profound lessons, leaving subsequent Marxists with the task of continuing exploration and reflection.
II. Innovations and Characteristics of the Sinicization of the Marxist View of Religion
The Sinicized Marxist view of religion correctly inherits the scientific theoretical viewpoints of Marx, Engels, and Lenin regarding religious issues. It absorbs and draws upon all positive and beneficial achievements, remains rooted in China's specific national conditions and the religious reality of the current era, and serves the practical needs of understanding and handling religious issues under socialist conditions. It has creatively proposed and formed a system of religious understanding and policy principles consistent with China's national conditions, thereby achieving innovation and development of the Marxist view of religion. This is concentrated in the following aspects:
(A) Viewing religion as a socio-historical phenomenon and a cultural phenomenon. Religion in a socialist society is a matter of ideological belief among the people. This breaks through the view that limits religion solely to an ideology and changes the long-held perception of religion as merely the opium that numbs the people.
(B) The "Five Characteristics" or "Three Characteristics" of Chinese religion. The "Five Characteristics" refer to the long-term, complex, mass-based, ethnic, and international nature of religion in China. The "Three Characteristics" are a further distillation of the "Five Characteristics," referring to the fact that religious issues during China's socialist period are prominently manifested through their long-term, mass-based, and complex nature. There are three key points: First, the existence of religion has profound socio-historical roots; it will exist and function for a long time. Although our society has basically eliminated the class roots of religion, other social, natural, cognitive, and psychological roots will persist for a long time. "The final demise of religion may be more distant than the demise of classes and the state" [19]. Second, religion is intertwined with the economic, political, and cultural issues of a given society, exerting a major influence on social development and stability. Third, religion is often intertwined with actual international struggles and conflicts, serving as an important factor in international relations and world politics [20].
(C) Religion has a dual role—both positive and negative—in socialist society, and it is also influenced by class struggle existing within a certain scope and by complex international factors. Contradictions involving religion in China are primarily contradictions among the people, but under certain conditions, antagonistic contradictions may also arise. Therefore, on the one hand, positive factors in religion should be fully mobilized to serve social development and stability; on the other hand, negative factors in religion must be suppressed. Simultaneously, "the positive factors in religion can be affirmed, but they must not be exaggerated" [21].
(D) Implementing the policy of freedom of religious belief. First, respect the freedom of every citizen to believe in religion and the freedom not to believe in religion. Second, adhere to the unity of rights and obligations; religious activities must follow the principle of legality and law-abidance. Third, on the premise of not obstructing the beliefs of religious masses and not hurting their religious feelings, the Party must persist in ideological and political work for all citizens—both religious and non-religious—and persevere in conducting ideological, moral, scientific, and cultural education.
(E) Managing religious affairs in accordance with the law. Protect normal religious activities and the legitimate rights and interests of religious circles according to the law; suppress illegal activities carried out under the guise of religion; resist infiltration by overseas forces using religion; and crack down on illegal and criminal activities organized through religion.
(F) Adhering to the principle of independence and self-management. Conduct friendly religious exchanges with foreign countries on the basis of equality, and resist infiltration by overseas forces using religion.
(G) Actively guiding religion to adapt to socialist society. First, requiring religion to adapt to socialist society does not mean requiring religious figures and believers to abandon their religious faiths; rather, it requires them to love the motherland politically, support the socialist system, and support the leadership of the Communist Party of China. Second, religious figures and believers must abide by national laws, regulations, and policies. Third, religious activities must be subordinate to and serve the highest interests of the state and the overall interests of the nation. Fourth, religion itself should carry out self-reform and self-adjustment based on the needs of socialist society to adapt to that society; it should fully explore, utilize, and exert the positive and progressive factors within religion to serve socialism.
(8) Incorporating religious work into the scope of the united front, and proposing principles of political unity and cooperation alongside mutual respect in ideology and belief as the basis for handling relations with patriotic figures in the religious world, thereby giving full play to the positive role of religion in promoting social harmony.
(9) Emphasizing the need to be adept at discerning the distinctions and connections between ethnic issues and religious issues in a multi-ethnic socialist country [28]. The Sinicized Marxist view of religion centrally expresses the Communist Party of China's (CPC) fundamental understanding of and attitude toward Chinese religion. It provides a comprehensive exposition across various dimensions, including the definition of religion, the roots of religion, the functions of religion, the national conditions regarding religion, the relationship between religion and ethnicity, the fundamental purpose and basic policies for resolving religious issues, and the basic pathways for doing so. It concretizes and systematizes a series of scientific viewpoints formed by generations of Communists in the process of studying religion and practicing the resolution of Chinese religious issues. Taking the active guidance of religion to adapt to socialist society as its theme, and setting—as its goals—the comprehensive implementation of the Party's policy of freedom of religious belief, the management of religious affairs according to law, the principle of independence and self-management [7], the consolidation and development of the patriotic united front with the religious world, and the unification of the masses to strive together for socialist modernization, it points out that the best pathway for handling religious issues and the fundamental direction for religious development lies in actively guiding religion to adapt to socialist society. Regarding the fundamental path to resolving the religious problem, it adopts a long-term perspective and persists over the long term, striving to gradually eliminate the social and cognitive roots of religion's existence through the continuous development of the economy, culture, science, and technology, all under the prerequisite of guaranteeing freedom of religious belief. The CPC’s series of understandings and viewpoints on religion "set a paradigm for rational reflection on religious theory, creating an atmosphere and conditions for academic innovation and prosperity," helping to "promote the benign and healthy development of religion itself," and "providing a correct theoretical basis and ideological guidance for formulating religious policies consistent with national and religious conditions, as well as standardized religious administrative regulations consistent with the characteristics of religion," while possessing "special practical significance for the construction of a harmonious society" [29]. This is a concentrated manifestation of the innovation and development of the Marxist view of religion in China and an important achievement of the Sinicization of Marxism. It offers theoretical reference for other socialist countries in handling religious issues and imbues the Sinicized Marxist view of religion with global significance.
As the latest achievement of the Sinicization of the Marxist view of religion, its characteristics can be summarized as follows:
First, its ideological nature. Marxism is the guiding ideology for our Party and nation, the banner of socialist ideology, the soul of the socialist core value system, and the common ideological foundation and powerful spiritual weapon for the people of all ethnic groups in the Party and the country to strive in unity [30]. The Marxist view of religion is the theoretical summation of Marxism in the field of religion and an organic component of Marxism. In contemporary China, the Sinicized Marxist view of religion clarifies the CPC’s fundamental viewpoints and propositions on the Chinese religious issue; it not only centrally expresses, embodies, and reflects the interests and demands of the people, but is also a scientific guide for understanding and resolving China's religious issues and an important spiritual weapon for guiding the masses to resist various erroneous understandings, establish a scientific worldview and methodology, and improve the comprehensive quality of the people.
Second, its scientific nature. The Sinicized Marxist view of religion adheres to the basic principles of Marxism and embodies the scientific stance and methods of Marxism, while absorbing and drawing upon all positive and beneficial achievements under new historical conditions. It is the theoretical guide directing Chinese religion toward a path of development that adapts to socialist society, and it is the worldview and methodology for us to scientifically and correctly understand religion and handle religious issues.
Third, its holistic nature. The Sinicized Marxist view of religion permeates its internal structure with the dialectical unity between the scientific and class nature of the Marxist view of religion, between theory and practice, and between universality and particularity. It intrinsically links the Marxist stance, viewpoint, and method with their application, forming a unified whole. It not only comprehensively raises the question of the relationship between religion and socialist society but also integrates religious issues with the historical mission of the Marxist political party, the cause of socialism, and the comprehensive liberation of humanity. It originates from the Marxist view of religion and is simultaneously derived from and integrated into the various components of Marxist philosophy, political economy, and scientific socialism, covering multi-disciplinary categories and penetrating all fields and aspects of social life.
Fourth, its practical nature. The Sinicized Marxist view of religion was formed during the great practice of the revolution, construction, and reform led by the CPC, and it continues to be refined as practice develops. In the process of integrating the Marxist view of religion with China’s concrete reality, on one hand, it starts from China’s specific religious reality to continuously test, enrich, and develop the content of the Marxist view of religion, advancing the historical process of its Sinicization. On the other hand, based on new practice, it uses the enriched and developed Marxist view of religion—namely, the Sinicized Marxist view of religion—to guide religious practice in China, achieving a new integration of theory and practice, which demonstrates a high degree of practicality.
Fifth, its openness. The Sinicized Marxist view of religion is a continuously developing and open system of theory and policy principles. In the process of leading the Chinese people on the path of revolution, construction, and reform, and in continuously advancing the historical process of the Sinicization of Marxism, generations of Chinese Communists have promoted the ongoing development and improvement of the Sinicized Marxist view of religion. In the future, based on the development of the times, the evolution of religion, and new characteristics of religious work, and through the continuous exploration and summarization of the latest achievements in religious theory, the Sinicized Marxist view of religion will continue to exhibit the characteristics of constant enrichment and development.
Sixth, its national character. Since the introduction of Marxism into China, Chinese Communists, represented by Comrade Mao Zedong and others, have focused on integrating Marxist theory with China’s concrete practice, highlighting the national character of the Sinicization of Marxism. The CPC observes and understands religion from the overall perspective of the international and domestic situations, views religion through the lens of the overall needs of the development of the Chinese revolution, construction, and reform, and integrates the basic principles of the Marxist view of religion with the specific reality of Chinese religion and the rich experience of Chinese religious work. By applying it according to China’s characteristics, they have given it distinct Chinese features and a Chinese style [8], ultimately achieving a massive theoretical leap.
III. Basic Concepts of the Sinicization of the Marxist View of Religion
Since Marxism was introduced to China, took root, and flourished—especially after becoming the guiding ideology of the CPC—Chinese Communists have achieved fruitful results and profound insights through nearly a century of studying, disseminating, and realizing the Sinicization of Marxism. In the process of inheriting, applying, and developing the Marxist view of religion in China, they have formed relatively mature attitudes and practices, leaving us with invaluable experience.
(1) The basic principles of the Marxist view of religion must be upheld.
Adhering to the basic principles of historical materialism is the fundamental prerequisite for the Sinicization of the Marxist view of religion. These basic principles consist of two levels: the first level is the Marxist worldview and methodology—what are commonly called the stance, viewpoint, and method [31]. Regarding the basic stance, it is the materialist stance, the proletarian stance, and the stance of the people; regarding the basic viewpoints, they are the materialist, dialectical, practical, class, mass, and human liberation viewpoints. These are our most fundamental viewpoints for observing, analyzing, and handling religious issues. Regarding methods, they include seeking truth from facts, historical dialectics, contradiction analysis, class analysis, the mass line, and the practical method, among others. These are the direct forms of application of basic Marxist principles and viewpoints, serving as scientific and effective tools for understanding and as ideological weapons. The second level consists of the core theories of historical materialism, such as the theory of the dialectical relationship between social existence and social consciousness, between productive forces and relations of production, and between the economic base and the superstructure. These are the fundamental, foundational, and universally guiding theories within the Marxist view of religion, and they are the most basic ideological viewpoints emphasized and upheld by Marxists throughout history. Of course, some specific judgments made by Marx and Engels regarding religious issues under the specific conditions of their time may no longer be entirely applicable to today’s reality. However, the basic principles expounded by the Marxist view of religion still serve as a scientific and rational worldview and methodological guide for explaining religious phenomena and analyzing and resolving religious issues even today. Their scientific nature is eternal and still possesses powerful vitality [32]. Abandoning these basic principles would mean deviating from Marxism, moving toward the opposite of the Marxist view of religion, and would preclude any discussion of the Sinicization of the Marxist view of religion.
(2) The Marxist view of religion must be based on China's specific national conditions.
China’s religious reality is the basic starting point and the source of vitality for the Sinicization of the Marxist view of religion. The Marxist view of religion reflects the basic viewpoints of Marxists toward religion; it consists of basic principles and general conclusions abstracted from the study of religious phenomena. Only by integrating these with China's specific national conditions regarding religion is it possible to realize the Sinicization of the Marxist view of religion and form a theoretical system consistent with Chinese reality, thereby fulfilling its guiding role. The formation, development, inheritance, and innovation of the Marxist view of religion also reflect a process of continuous integration with specific historical conditions. When Marx and Engels studied religion and founded the Marxist view of religion, they were based in Mid-19th-century Western Europe, aiming to serve the working class in establishing a new worldview, which would in turn establish the theory of scientific socialism and provide theoretical guidance for the proletarian revolution. When Lenin inherited and developed the Marxist view of religion, his purpose was to complete the historical mission of utilizing the imperialist war to launch a proletarian revolution and establish the dictatorship of the proletariat [33]. The formation and development of the Sinicized Marxist view of religion occurred as generations of Chinese Communists correctly inherited the scientific theoretical viewpoints of the Marxist classical writers on religion, based themselves on China's specific national conditions, scientifically summarized both positive and negative experiences regarding religious issues, and absorbed and drew upon all previous positive and beneficial achievements. This led to a system of scientific understanding and policy principles consistent with China’s religious conditions. Divorced from China's concrete national conditions and specific socio-historical conditions, the Sinicization of the Marxist view of religion would be impossible.
(3) The Marxist view of religion must undergo new enrichment and development.
From Marx and Engels to Lenin, the Marxist view of religion they founded, inherited, and developed contained extremely important universal scientific principles, but also inevitably contained many specific judgments and viewpoints that were unique theoretical innovations of specific eras and national conditions. Although they left behind many classic discourses on religious issues that still shine with the brilliance of truth, it cannot be denied that many specific discourses on religion in their theories are no longer applicable to the reality of today's Chinese socialist society. For instance, concepts such as "religion is the opium of the people," the "religious cloak" theory, "religion is a form of spiritual cheap booze," and the "struggle against religion" all need to be re-evaluated and must never be simply copied. The practice of China's revolution, construction, and reform shows that mechanically copying the Marxist view of religion leads to errors and setbacks in our cause, a lesson that has left us with many profound insights. Therefore, we must view Marxism through the lens of development and continuously develop the Marxist view of religion in practice, so that the Party’s religious theory and work can better embody the character of the times, grasp underlying laws, and be rich in creativity. Only by maintaining the vigor and vitality of the Marxist view of religion can we give full play to its immense power in guiding practice. This requires us to proceed from reality in all things, seek truth from facts, emancipate the mind, and—while adhering to the Marxist view of religion—draw upon all the excellent achievements of human civilization. Based on our country's religious reality and grasping the trends of world religious development, we must boldly engage in theoretical innovation and continuously advance the process of the Sinicization of the Marxist view of religion.
In summary, the Marxist view of religion inherited and developed by the Communist Party of China is both a major source for the theoretical system of socialism with Chinese characteristics and, in its core substance, a vital constituent component of that very system. It serves as the fundamental guide for the CPC in resolving China’s religious questions under socialist conditions. It provides a historical, comprehensive, correct, and profound answer to basic theoretical questions regarding religion. Furthermore, it constitutes a vital guiding ideology for performing our work on religion, constructing harmonious religious relations, safeguarding ethnic unity and social stability, and promoting the reunification of the motherland, as well as for developing the politics, economy, and culture of socialism with Chinese characteristics and building a harmonious society [9]. Under the new historical conditions and the leadership of the Communist Party of China, there is every reason to believe with firm conviction that, along the path of the Sinicization of Marxism, the Sinicized Marxist view of religion will continue to be enriched, perfected, and developed. It will further exert its powerful role as a theoretical guide in handling religious issues within the cause of socialism with Chinese characteristics.
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