Marxism Research Network
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Chen Yongsheng: An Outline for the Construction of the Basic Theoretical Framework of Marxist Psychology of Religion

Science & Atheism

Within the disciplinary system of Marxist religious studies, the Marxist psychology of religion constitutes an organic component. For a long time, however, research into the basic theories of the psychology of religion guided by the Marxist view of religion has remained very weak. To a certain extent, this has affected the holistic construction of the disciplinary system of Marxist religious studies. This article intends to offer some personal views on several issues concerning basic theoretical research from the perspective of disciplinary construction, with the hope that seniors and colleagues in the academic community will correct any improprieties.

I. Historical Experiences and Lessons from the Research of Psychology of Religion in the Former Soviet Union

Starting from the 1960s, the former Soviet Union began to apply Marxist positions, viewpoints, and methods to explore issues in the psychology of religion. However, before the 1980s, these inquiries remained confined to isolated aspects of the field. It was not until the mid-1980s that academic monographs began to appear that systematically explored the psychology of religion. Taking The Psychology of Religion (1986 Russian edition, 1989 Chinese edition) [1] by D.M. Ugrinovich as an example, the following is a brief analysis of the historical experiences and lessons of basic theoretical research in Marxist psychology of religion in the former Soviet Union.

(1) Key experiences in the basic theoretical research of Marxist psychology of religion in the former Soviet Union

In the author's view, the experiences of the former Soviet Union's research can be summarized in three aspects.

First, it initially constructed a disciplinary framework for Marxist psychology of religion. The framework built by Ugrinovich mainly includes four parts: (1) The object of study. In Ugrinovich’s view, the psychology of the believer and the psychology of the atheist are the objects of study. While the psychology of the believer is a common object for both Marxist and non-Marxist psychology of religion, the study of the psychology of atheism and the psychological conditions for helping believers break free from the shackles of theism constitutes the distinct characteristic of the Marxist approach. (2) The research task. According to Ugrinovich, studying the psychology of believers is not an end in itself for Marxist doctrine, but merely a means to improve atheistic work aimed at overcoming religious fallacies. Therefore, the fundamental task of Marxist psychology of religion "is undoubtedly linked to the practice of atheistic education." [2] (3) Research methods. Ugrinovich believed the methodological foundation consists of the works of classical Marxist-Leninist authors on religion and atheism, Party documents, and the research results of Soviet psychologists such as L.S. Vygotsky. Specific research methods involve two levels: first, the theoretical analysis of the religious psychology of individuals or groups; second, the use of various empirical methods to conduct experiential research on the psychology of believers. Only through the organic synthesis of theory and practice can a scientific psychology of religion be effectively developed. (4) The nature of the discipline. Ugrinovich pointed out that Marxist psychology of religion is an interdisciplinary field situated between psychology and religious studies. Within the system of psychology, it is most directly and profoundly influenced by social psychology; within the system of religious studies, it focuses on the socio-psychological dimensions of religious consciousness.

Second, it attached great importance to the critique of various Western theistic psychological ideas. Throughout Ugrinovich’s The Psychology of Religion, one finds that every chapter applies Marxist positions, viewpoints, and methods to criticize the illusory and absurd nature of various Western theistic psychological theories. For example, in the fourth chapter’s discussion of "religious experience"—a core concept in Western theistic psychology—Ugrinovich points out that both theologians and idealist scholars of religion with similar views "regard religious experience as something originating from God or the supernatural. C.G. Jung’s view is similar, as he believes certain archetypes in the 'collective unconscious' form the basis of religious experience. As for the most popular tradition of explaining religious experience in the West, it stems from W. James, who interpreted this experience from a subjective idealist standpoint. Most foreign psychologists view religious experience as something subjective and individual formed in the depths of the human psyche. As American psychologist W. Clark wrote: '...religious experience is an inner, subjective thing, and the most personal of characteristics.'" [3] Based on the fundamental Marxist principle that social existence determines social consciousness, Ugrinovich forcefully refuted these explanations. He emphasized that "neither individual nor group religious consciousness can exist in isolation from the myths, images, and ideas acquired by people during the process of socialization. Thus, any attempt to portray religious experience as a purely individual phenomenon generated independently of the social environment is fundamentally untenable." [4]

Third, it regarded atheistic education as the core of Marxist psychology of religion. Ugrinovich’s book consists of seven chapters, with "Psychological Problems of Atheistic Education" placed in the final chapter, which might suggest its status is not prominent. However, a careful reading of the whole text reveals that within the framework and content system he outlined, atheistic education is both the starting point and the final destination of scientific research, as well as the primary content of study. In the introduction to the first chapter, Ugrinovich states clearly: "The psychology of religion appears to be a discipline between psychology and religious studies... Marxist religious studies itself is an inseparable part of atheistic education." [5] In the specific arguments of chapters two through six (covering psychological roots of religion, religious belief, the socio-psychological essence of religious consolation, psychological aspects of religious cults, and the formation of individual belief), the basic theoretical tool Ugrinovich employs is always the Marxist atheist viewpoint. For instance, when explaining the psychological roots of religion, he argues: "Apologists for religion... assert that in people’s consciousness, belief in God and the immortality of the soul is the only way out of the 'tragedy of existence.' Conversely, propagators of atheism should provide the scientific answer, pointing out that sensible people should not be obsessed with myths of individual immortality; true human immortality lies in the footprints one leaves behind in the world after death." [6] In the book’s "Conclusion," Ugrinovich points out even more unequivocally: "Marxist psychology of religion cannot limit itself to studying the psychology of believers. Its important task is to study the psychological problems of atheistic education... forming a healthy, moral psychological environment in every collective is of great significance for atheistic education." [7]

(2) Historical lessons from the basic theoretical research of Marxist psychology of religion in the former Soviet Union

Although the Soviet Union conducted active explorations and accumulated experience, certain deviations—especially the fact that the top Soviet leadership thoroughly abandoned the correct Marxist direction in their ideological and political line—resulted in these scientific explorations being wasted. This left behind profound historical lessons, primarily manifested as follows:

First, there was insufficient understanding of the long-term and complex nature of religious issues during the socialist stage. In Ugrinovich’s work, the study of believers’ psychology focused on understanding their psychological characteristics to provide a basis for atheistic education—specifically, helping believers leave religion and establish a scientific worldview. As he noted, "Atheistic education for believers should be based on studying the paths of their departure from religion and clarifying the socio-psychological conflicts accompanying this process." [8] This proposition reveals that Soviet scholars’ understanding of religion under socialism was too superficial, or possessed a clear "Leftist" extremist bias. From the socialist practice of New China over the past 60 years—especially the 30-plus years of reform and opening up—the religious issue is a complex matter that must be handled properly in socialist construction. It involves the united front, the mass line, and the correct differentiation and handling of the two different types of contradictions. If handled well, negative factors can be turned into positive ones, mobilizing the enthusiasm of the masses; if handled poorly, it may increase social instability, exacerbate contradictions among the people, and even ruin the future of socialism.

Second, it failed to truly embody the distinct contemporary characteristics of the scientific Marxist methodology. The "Leftist" radical bias was fundamentally a result of failing to grasp the essence of Marxist scientific methodology. Materialist dialectics and historical materialism are the fundamental methods for understanding religion under socialism. Their contemporary character requires a dialectical and concrete analysis of the duality of religion and religious psychology during the socialist stage, properly balancing atheistic education with the implementation of the Party's religious policies according to the law of the unity of opposites. In the field of psychology of religion, this relationship should involve both the study of atheist psychology among advanced elements (such as CPC members) to serve Party building, and the study of the theistic psychology of clergy and believers to provide them with appropriate services. Only then can the psychology of religion play a full, positive role in socialist construction. Soviet scholars understood Marxist viewpoints rigidly; they saw the importance of atheistic education but ignored the practical significance of providing psychological services to clergy and believers—a lesson Chinese researchers must remember and reflect upon.

Third, the understanding of the disciplinary system of Marxist psychology of religion was not comprehensive enough. These limitations included: failing to include mental health and counseling services for clergy and believers as an important task; restricting the foundation of the discipline to social psychology, which hindered exploration into physiological bases or the relationship between religion and physical/mental health; and a belief that higher-level experiments (using instrumentation) were not possible. Furthermore, the blanket dismissal of non-Marxist research as "bourgeois psychology of religion" limited the breadth and depth of their research.

II. Basic Characteristics of the Sinicization of the Marxist View of Religious Psychology

The spiritual essence of the Sinicization of the Marxist view of religious psychology lies in combining the basic principles of the Marxist view of religious psychology with China's concrete reality to creatively solve religious psychological problems in China's revolution and construction. The content of the Sinicization of the Marxist view of religious psychology is extremely rich. Due to space constraints, this section selects several discourses involving religious psychology by several generations of CPC leaders during different historical periods, explaining the basic characteristics of the Sinicization of the Marxist view of religious psychology from the two perspectives of strengthening Party building and implementing religious policies.

(1) Focusing on examining atheistic psychology and education from the strategic height of Party building.

Since the founding of the CPC, whether during the New Democratic Revolution [5] or the period of socialist revolution and construction, the main leaders of the Party have regarded the issue of atheism (including atheistic psychology and education) as an important part of the Party’s ideological and theoretical building, maintaining a firm stance, clear attitude, and consistent viewpoints without wavering. This firm stance and attitude are primarily reflected in two aspects: using the ideas of scientific atheism to elucidate the essence, origins, and hazards of religion; and the specific strategies for conducting atheistic education among the masses.

Regarding the use of scientific atheism to elucidate the essence, origins, and hazards of religion, the understanding of the Party's main leaders has continuously deepened along with the progress of the revolution and construction. During the New Democratic Revolution, while annotating Li Da's Outline of Sociology, Mao Zedong summarized the essence and origins of religion as follows: "The essence of religion is the worship of supernatural forces, believing that supernatural forces dominate the individual, society, and the world. This occurs entirely due to the fact of not recognizing natural and social forces." {11} "Dominance of nature, dominance of society, and animism are the three sources of primitive religion." {12} Li Dazhao, one of the founders of the CPC, profoundly pointed out the constraints and hazards of religion on the human spirit: "Our movement against religion is not intended to rely on the power of a mighty force to oppress or destroy people who believe in a religion, but rather to clarify the evils of religion’s shackles on the soul based on the truth of freedom, desiring that all people can break free from its shackles and blindness according to their free judgment." {13} During the period of socialist revolution and construction, leaders such as Deng Xiaoping, Jiang Zemin, and Hu Jintao inherited and developed Mao Zedong’s thoughts on scientific atheism. On October 15, 1979, while meeting a British delegation of prominent figures led by Greene and accepting a television interview, Deng Xiaoping pointed out: "Since the founding of our People's Republic, we have always implemented freedom of religious belief. Of course, we also conduct propaganda for atheism." {14} In the 1990s, in response to religious extremism,-separatism, and terrorist activities in Tibet and Xinjiang as well as the "Falun Gong" incident, Jiang Zemin repeatedly emphasized: "Our Party members are communists and atheists; they must establish a Marxist view of religion and firm up their belief in socialism and communism." {15} "Communist Party members not only cannot believe in religion, but must also propagate atheism and a scientific worldview to the masses." {16} "Is it possible that the Marxist theory possessed by us Communists, the materialism and atheism we believe in, cannot defeat the stuff preached by 'Falun Gong'? If that were really the case, wouldn't it be a huge joke! Our leading cadres at all levels, especially senior cadres, should sober up!" {17} Hu Jintao also argued many times: "We Chinese Communists are atheists and do not believe in any religion, but we are also historical materialists and must view religion with a scientific and historical perspective, comprehensively understanding the profound historical, social, and psychological roots of its emergence and existence." {18}

Regarding specific strategies for conducting atheistic education among the masses, Mao Zedong provided an incisive exposition of the psychological laws of atheistic propaganda as early as in the Report on an Investigation of the Peasant Movement in Hunan: "The gods [Boddhisattvas] were set up by the peasants, and in due course they will cast these gods aside with their own hands; there is no need for others to do it for them prematurely. The Party's propaganda policy toward such things should be: 'draw the bow but do not discharge the arrow, making a show of being about to leap.'" [6] {19} Zhou Enlai held similar views on atheistic education: "On issues such as materialism versus idealism, atheism versus theism, as well as teaching methods, one cannot impatiently force others to agree with your opinion. Otherwise, they might appear to agree on the surface, but the problem is not actually solved." {20} Jiang Zemin further pointed out: "Publicity and education on atheism among the masses should be distinguished from the requirements for Party members, and should be combined with the concrete practice of the construction of the 'Two Civilizations' [7] of socialism. We must be adept at using materialistic viewpoints to explain the roots of religious belief, work hard to improve people’s scientific and cultural qualities, and prevent simplistic approaches that hurt the religious feelings of believers or the use of administrative orders to force people not to believe in religion." {21}

(2) Striving to use policy levers to accurately reflect the dual functions of religious psychology.

Guided by the Marxist view of religion and focusing on the overall situation of the united front, the mass line, the construction of spiritual civilization, and the long-term peace and stability of the country, several generations of CPC leaders have explored the duality of religion, including religious psychology, from multiple angles and put forward many famous assertions. These assertions constitute an important part of the Sinicization of the Marxist view of religious psychology.

For example, Mao Zedong pointed out in On New Democracy: "Communists may form an anti-imperialist and anti-feudal united front for political action with certain idealists and even with religious believers, but they can never approve of their idealism or religious doctrines." {22} In a conversation with the Panchen Erdeni Chökyi Gyaltsen [8], Deng Xiaoping said: "Regarding religion, administrative orders cannot be used; however, the religious side must not engage in fanaticism, otherwise it would run contrary to socialism and the interests of the people." {23} In his speech at the National Conference on Religious Work in 2001, Jiang Zemin provided a comprehensive analysis of the Party’s religious theory and policies in the socialist stage, emphasizing the need for scientific management of religious affairs to both suppress negative factors in religion and give play to its positive factors.

Regarding the negative role of religious psychology, Jiang Zemin pointed out: "In class society, the oppression of humanity by religion is the product and reflection of economic oppression within society. When the laboring masses suffer from this oppression and find no escape, they often seek spiritual solace in religion; the exploiting classes also use religion as an important spiritual means to control the masses, weakening their will to resist and dispersing their strength. When Marx said 'Religion is the sigh of the oppressed creature' and 'Religion is the opium of the people,' it was in this sense. ... The establishment of the socialist system is conducive to eliminating the class roots of religion’s existence, but the disappearance of other social, natural, and cognitive roots will take an extremely long historical period. ... It can be said that the final withering away of religion may take even longer than the withering away of classes and the state." {24}

Regarding the positive role of religious psychology, Jiang Zemin pointed out: "Religion also plays a positive role in stabilizing the emotions of believers and regulating their psychology through psychological comfort. Of course, the purpose of affirming the positive factors in religion is not to develop religion, but to strive to make existing religions serve national unity, economic development, social stability, and the reunification of the motherland. In handling this issue, the degree must be mastered well. Positive factors in religion can be affirmed, but they must not be exaggerated." {25} "There are more than 100 million people who believe in various religions in our country; they are also an active force in building socialism with Chinese characteristics. We must unite, educate, and guide this part of the masses, fully mobilizing their enthusiasm and creativity in production and work, so as to facilitate relying on and uniting all the people to jointly promote the construction of socialist material and spiritual civilization." {26}

III. On Methodological Issues of Marxist Religious Psychology

When summarizing the historical lessons of the study of religious psychology in the former Soviet Union, the author already mentioned that dialectical materialism and historical materialism are the methodological foundations of Marxist religious psychology. Under the guidance of this fundamental method, the specific research methods of Marxist religious psychology should follow the requirements of the times for problem-orientation and methodological innovation, fully reflecting the distinct interdisciplinary characteristics of the field of religious psychology.

(1) Earnestly integrating problem-orientation into the concrete research of Marxist religious psychology.

In the author's view, the essence of problem-orientation is actually the embodiment of the basic principle of Marxist epistemology: the unity of theory and practice. For Marxist researchers, any scientific research that is divorced from practice and from the discovery and resolution of problems will inevitably become mere empty talk. The study of Marxist religious psychology is no exception.

Under the current background of reform and opening up, there are many problems in religious psychology with Chinese characteristics that need to be researched and solved. In terms of the publicity and education of atheism, the problems of religious psychology that need research include: why, within the CPC as the vanguard of the working class, do some Party members and even leading cadres have weak convictions in atheism, even pitting scientific atheistic education against the implementation of the Party's religious policies; why, among contemporary youth including undergraduate and graduate students, has the number of people keen on modern superstitions such as astrology and fate, or even turning to religion, increased significantly, and what are the psychological roots; what is the internal connection between scientific atheistic psychology and the core socialist values; and how to prevent the challenges and infiltration of Western theistic psychological trends, especially religious extremism and terrorism, into China’s mainstream ideology. In terms of providing psychological services to clergy and believers, the problems of religious psychology that need research include: how to accurately distinguish mental illness or psychological disorders from the special states of emotional arousal and behavioral modes of clergy and believers; what are the similarities and differences between religious propagation methods used by clergy and modern psychological counseling and psychotherapy techniques; what are the effective ways to enhance the mental health of clergy and believers; and how to give play to the positive role of clergy and believers in the construction of moral psychology.

In short, only by facing reality, going deep into life, and accurately grasping the practical demands and long-term needs of contemporary China in terms of religious psychology can we fully manifest the essence and contemporary characteristics of the methodology of Marxist religious psychology. This is the prerequisite that must first be clarified when discussing methodological issues.

(2) Gradually forming distinctive characteristics of the methodology of Marxist religious psychology through methodological innovation.

Regarding methodological issues, the advantage of Marxist religious psychology is that it can, with the help of the unique perspectives and theoretical tools of dialectical materialism and respect for history, absorb all effective methods in the field of religious psychology to the maximum extent and continuously engage in methodological innovation, thereby maintaining the internal vitality of Marxist religious psychology research.

In the field of religious psychology in the West, especially in the United States, there exist two different research orientations: "psychology of religion" and "religious psychology." {27} The former emphasizes empiricism and slights speculation, while the latter focuses on doctrine and opposes empiricism. This serious divergence or opposition in research orientation has largely affected the healthy development of Western religious psychology. In the process of exploring Marxist religious psychology in the former Soviet Union, there was a certain "Far-Left" tendency toward the research results of Western religious psychology, and the fundamental laws of dialectical materialism were not truly implemented in methodology. As a result, there appeared a bias of being too eager to help believers transform their theistic psychology. The fact that the Orthodox Church and other religions rapidly recovered and flourished after the collapse of the Soviet Union proves from the negative side that theistic psychology, which is closely linked to one's worldview, cannot be shifted simply by relying on administrative orders. It must, along with the development of the productive forces (especially science and technology) and the continuous improvement of human civilization, gradually exit the stage of history over a fairly long historical period. In short, the divergence, opposition, or bias existing in the research methods of religious psychology between the West and the former Soviet Union is, fundamentally speaking, the inevitable result of a lack of the scientific methodology of dialectical materialism and historical materialism.

A Marxist psychology of religion with Chinese characteristics, or a Sinicized Marxist psychology of religion, emphasizes methodological holism, dialectics, diversity, advancing with the times, seeking truth from facts, and the concrete analysis of concrete conditions. Consequently, equal respect is accorded to the exploration of historical roots and the contemplation of contemporary issues; to quantitative investigations (such as measurement, experiments, or quasi-experiments) and qualitative analyses (such as participant observation, interviews, logical reasoning, and the synthesis of experience); and to phenomenal description and future forecasting. If different research methods can be combined organically—while remaining attentive to original or integrated innovation during this process of combination—and if we strive to reach the ideal state of "letting a hundred flowers bloom and a hundred schools of thought contend" [9] so conducive to academic development, then such efforts will receive even greater encouragement and support. In the author's view, this is precisely where the vibrant charm of the methodology of Sinicized Marxist psychology of religion lies. Without question, in the historical process of constructing a Marxist psychology of religion with Chinese characteristics, we must continually carry forward and develop this vibrant charm of Marxist religious psychological methodology.

Notes:

  1. D. M. Ugrinovich, Psikhologiya religii [Psychology of Religion], trans. Shen Yipeng (Beijing: Social Sciences Academic Press, 1989).
  2. Ugrinovich, Psychology of Religion, "Preface," 3.
  3. Ugrinovich, Psychology of Religion, 111–112.
  4. Ugrinovich, Psychology of Religion, 113.
  5. Ugrinovich, Psychology of Religion, 1.
  6. Ugrinovich, Psychology of Religion, 65.
  7. Ugrinovich, Psychology of Religion, 260.
  8. Ugrinovich, Psychology of Religion, 252.
  9. Ugrinovich, Psychology of Religion, 9.
  10. Ugrinovich, Psychology of Religion, 13.
  11. Party Literature Research Center of the CPC Central Committee, Mao Zedong zhexue pizhu ji [Collected Philosophical Annotations of Mao Zedong] (Beijing: Central Party Literature Press, 1988), 214.
  12. Party Literature Research Center, Collected Philosophical Annotations of Mao Zedong, 213.
  13. Li Dazhao, "Fei zongjiao zhe xuanyan" [Manifesto of Non-Believers], in Li Dazhao quanji [Complete Works of Li Dazhao], vol. 4 (Shijiazhuang: Hebei Education Press, 1999), 71.
  14. Party Literature Research Center of the CPC Central Committee, ed., Deng Xiaoping sixiang nianpu (1975–1997) [Chronology of Deng Xiaoping’s Thought (1975–1997)] (Beijing: Central Party Literature Press, 1998), 134.
  15. Party Literature Research Center of the CPC Central Committee, ed., Jiang Zemin sixiang nianbian (1889–2008) [Chronological Records of Jiang Zemin’s Thought (1989–2008)] (Beijing: Central Party Literature Press, 2010), 40.
  16. Party Literature Research Center, Chronological Records of Jiang Zemin’s Thought, 48.
  17. Jiang Zemin, "Yi ge xin de xinhao" [A New Signal], in Jiang Zemin wenxuan [Selected Works of Jiang Zemin], vol. 2 (Beijing: People's Publishing House, 2006), 320.
  18. Party Literature Research Center of the CPC Central Committee, ed., Shiliuda yilai zhongyao wenxian xuanbian (xia) [Selected Important Documents Since the 16th National Congress (Vol. 2)] (Beijing: Central Party Literature Press, 2008), 554.
  19. Mao Zedong, "Hunan nongmin yundong kaocha baogao" [Report on an Investigation of the Peasant Movement in Hunan], in Mao Zedong xuanji [Selected Works of Mao Zedong], vol. 1, 2nd ed. (Beijing: People's Publishing House, 1991), 33.
  20. Zhou Enlai, "Zai quanguo gaodeng jiaoyu huiyi shang de jianghua" [Speech at the National Higher Education Conference], in Zhou Enlai jiaoyu wenxuan [Selected Educational Works of Zhou Enlai] (Beijing: Education Science Press, 1984), 11.
  21. Party Literature Research Center, Chronological Records of Jiang Zemin’s Thought, 43.
  22. Mao Zedong, "Xin minzhu zhuyi lun" [On New Democracy], in Selected Works of Mao Zedong, vol. 2, 2nd ed. (Beijing: People's Publishing House, 1991), 707.
  23. Party Literature Research Center, Chronology of Deng Xiaoping’s Thought, 167.
  24. Jiang Zemin, "Lun zongjiao wenti" [On Religious Issues], in Selected Works of Jiang Zemin, vol. 3 (Beijing: People's Publishing House, 2006), 380.
  25. Jiang Zemin, "On Religious Issues," 389.
  26. Jiang Zemin, "On Religious Issues," 381.
  27. See Chen Yongsheng, Liang Henghao, and Lu Liqing, "Zongjiao xinlixue zai meiguo de fazhan licheng ji taishi tanxi" [Analysis of the Developmental Course and Trends of Psychology of Religion in the United States], Shijie zongjiao yanjiu [Studies in World Religions], no. 1 (2006).