Marxism Research Network
Unofficial English Translation

Huang Yanhong: The Development Process and Characteristics of the Sinicization of Marxist Atheism Since the Reform and Opening-up

Science & Atheism

Scientific atheism is the point of departure and the cornerstone of the Marxist worldview, moving progressively from the ideological and cultural sphere into the practice of the scientific socialist movement. Ever since the Communists of China embraced Marxism, they have continuously enriched and developed Marxist atheist thought throughout the process of promoting the integration of Marxism with China’s actual conditions. Since the Reform and Opening-up [1] in particular, the Sinicization of Marxist atheist thought has gained much new content. These ideological insights and achievements are primarily reflected in the work of the following areas: research on, as well as the dissemination and education of, materialism (including atheism) and scientific culture; religious work, especially the formulation of religious policies and the management of religious affairs; united front work; and the handling of ethnic and religious issues.

In general, since the beginning of Reform and Opening-up, the Sinicization of Marxist atheism has passed through three stages.

I. From the Late 1970s to the Late 1980s

During this stage, the primary task facing our country’s socialist construction was "setting things right" (拨乱反正) [2] and beginning the process of Reform and Opening-up. Correspondingly, Marxist atheist thought during this period was mainly reflected in the implementation of the policy of freedom of religious belief and the persistence in the research, dissemination, and education of materialist atheism. It primarily included the following three propositions:

1. Comprehensively implementing the policy of freedom of religious belief and uniting religious citizens. For a party of atheists, the manner in which it handles religious issues manifests that party's mastery and application of Marxist atheist thought. The views expressed in the 1982 document Basic Viewpoints and Policies on Religious Issues During Our Country’s Socialist Period (also known as Document No. 19) reflect the understanding of the Communists of China on this issue during this period: "We Communists are atheists and must unremittingly propagate atheism. However, we must also understand that in dealing with people's ideological issues and matters of the spiritual world—including the issue of religious belief—using simple coercive methods is not only ineffective but extremely harmful." [3]

In reality, this thinking had already begun to manifest in our religious work. As early as 1979, along with the effort to "set things right" in united front work, the comprehensive implementation of the policy of freedom of religious belief began to be restored. At the 1980 Tibet Work Conference, it was specifically mentioned that "we must both respect the normal religious life of religious citizens and actively carry out ideological and political work as well as scientific and cultural education among them." [4] Starting from 1980, policies concerning the property and real estate of religious organizations were gradually implemented. While emphasizing the policy of freedom of religious belief, the Resolution on Certain Questions in the History of Our Party since the Founding of the People's Republic of China also pointed out: "Upholding the Four Cardinal Principles [5] does not require religious believers to abandon their religious beliefs; it only requires that they must not carry out propaganda against Marxism-Leninism and Mao Zedong Thought, and requires that religion must not interfere with politics or education." [6]

Document No. 19 of 1982 comprehensively expounded the basic viewpoints and policies regarding religious issues. It represents the practice and application of Marxist atheist thought in handling China's religious issues and marks the preliminary formation of the theoretical system of Sinicized Marxist atheism. While discussing the implementation of the policy of freedom of religious belief, it emphasized the protection of people's freedom not to believe in religion. It specifically noted: "Protecting the freedom of belief should not only not hinder, but should strengthen the efforts to popularize scientific education and strengthen anti-superstition propaganda." It further emphasized that the essence of the policy of freedom of religious belief is to make the issue of religious belief a private matter for individual citizens. This reflects the basic spirit of Marxist atheist thought in handling religious matters.

The Resolution of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China on the Guiding Principles for Building a Socialist Spiritual Civilization, adopted at the Sixth Plenary Session of the 12th Central Committee of the CPC in 1986, stated: "On the issue of uniting all possible forces to build socialism, we must truly overcome the narrow viewpoints that caused serious harm for a long time, so that Party members and non-Party members, Marxists and non-Marxists, atheists and religious believers, domestic compatriots and overseas Chinese—in short, all laborers and patriots—are closely united and act actively to strive for the realization of our common ideal." [7]

2. Using Marxism to study religion, critiquing theism, and propagating materialism and atheism. As early as 1979, the Notice of the CPC Central Committee on Circulating the Document 'Guidelines and Tasks for the United Front in the New Period' from the National United Front Work Conference, when discussing the implementation of the policy of freedom of religious belief, pointed out: "Among the masses, propaganda and education on atheism must be carried out." [8] Document No. 19 of 1982 stated: "Using the Marxist stand, viewpoint, and method to conduct scientific research on religious issues is an important component of the Party's theoretical work." It also stated very clearly: "Using Marxist philosophy to critique idealism (including theism), conducting education on the scientific worldview of dialectical materialism and historical materialism (including atheism) for the masses—especially the youth—and strengthening the dissemination of scientific and cultural knowledge regarding natural phenomena, social evolution, and human birth, aging, illness, death, luck, and misfortune, is one of the important tasks of the Party on the propaganda front." [9]

The document also described the future prospects for resolving the religious issue under socialist conditions: "the vast majority of citizens will be able to consciously treat the world and life with a scientific attitude, and will no longer need to seek spiritual sustenance in an illusory world of gods." Since then, other policy documents have also mentioned the need for education in atheism. For example, the 1983 Notice of the CPC Central Committee on Strengthening Ideological and Political Work in Rural Areas pointed out: "We must carry out education in materialism and atheism, promote science, and oppose feudal superstition." [10]

3. Communist Party members must be atheists and are not permitted to believe in religion. Document No. 19 of 1982 clearly stated: "The Party's policy of freedom of religious belief is directed toward the citizens of our country; it does not apply to Communist Party members. A Communist Party member is different from an ordinary citizen; as a member of a Marxist party, they must undoubtedly be an atheist and must not be a theist. Our Party has made clear regulations many times: Communist Party members are not allowed to believe in religion or participate in religious activities. For the whole Party, this must continue to be resolutely implemented in the future." The document also noted that in those ethnic minority areas where basically the entire population believes in religion, the implementation of this regulation requires appropriate steps based on actual conditions and should not be handled simplistically. For example, for those minority Party members who work actively for the Party but cannot yet completely shake off religious influence, we should help them gradually establish a materialist worldview and gradually break free from the shackles of religious thought.

It is evident that during this period, while mastering the essence of Marxist atheist thought, the Communists of China—within the historical context of "setting things right" and Reform and Opening-up and considering national conditions such as the lack of scientific and cultural knowledge among the masses—demonstrated the cognitive fruits of the Sinicization of Marxist atheism across various fields, including religious work, ethnic work, united front work, rural work, and the building of spiritual civilization.

II. From the Late 1980s to the Late 1990s

During this stage, the strategy of "rejuvenating the country through science and education" (科教兴国) became the theme of the era. To ensure the implementation of this strategy, while emphasizing the stability and continuity of religious policy, Marxist atheist thought in China achieved a deeper understanding and further development. During this period, the theoretical achievements of the Sinicization of Marxist atheism mainly included: comprehensively understanding and implementing freedom of religious belief; requiring Communist Party members to uphold and propagate atheism; managing religious affairs according to law; and resisting the infiltration of overseas religious forces.

1. Comprehensively understanding and implementing freedom of religious belief and uniting religious citizens for socialist construction. In 1990, the Notice of the CPC Central Committee on Strengthening United Front Work reiterated the basic views and policies of Document No. 19 from 1982, arguing they should be earnestly implemented. Furthermore, the notice pointed out: "No one should go to religious venues to propagate atheism, and no religious organization or believer should preach, proselytize, or distribute books, periodicals, audio-visual products, or other items not approved by the relevant government departments outside of religious venues." [11] In 1990, during an inspection in Xinjiang, Jiang Zemin pointed out that the policy of freedom of religious belief must be implemented comprehensively and correctly. He particularly proposed that believers and non-believers should respect each other, and that great efforts should be made to promote sincere unity between them and among people of different religious faiths, so they may fight side-by-side for the prosperity of the socialist motherland. [12] In 1993, Li Ruihuan stated in a speech at the National United Front Work Conference: "With such an unprecedentedly broad alliance, we can unite all Communist Party members and non-Party members, Marxists and non-Marxists, atheists and religious believers, Han Chinese and ethnic minorities, domestic compatriots and overseas Chinese—in short, unite all forces that can be united—and concentrate the will and wisdom of the entire nation toward the grand goal of realizing the Four Modernizations, unifying the motherland, and revitalizing the Chinese nation." [13]

2. Communist Party members must uphold and propagate atheism. In 1990, while inspecting Xinjiang, Jiang Zemin discussed the need to educate Party members and cadres on the Marxist view of religion based on current circumstances. The first point he emphasized as needing particular reiteration was: "Communists are atheists; they must uphold and propagate atheism at all times. Regarding the non-atheist thoughts existing among some Party members, we must conduct patient and meticulous education and in-depth ideological work to help them resolve issues regarding their worldview." [14] In 1994, in his speech at the Third Tibet Work Forum convened by the CPC Central Committee and the State Council, Jiang Zemin again stated: "It must be emphasized that Communist Party members are atheists. Regardless of their ethnic background, they must uphold materialism and atheism and should not believe in religion." [15] In 1998, during another inspection of Xinjiang, he pointed out: "We Communists should study and uphold the viewpoints of historical materialism and have the courage to propagate Marxist atheism, while at the same time resolutely implementing the Party's religious policy and doing all work related to religion according to the law." [16]

In 1991, in response to the situation where a small number of Party members believed in religion and participated in religious activities, the CPC Central Committee issued a notice on properly resolving the issue of religious belief among Party members. The notice proposed that to solve this problem, priority must be given to strengthening education, with regular education for members in Marxist atheism, basic Party knowledge, and scientific and cultural knowledge. [17] In 1993, Hu Jintao, in a speech to representatives at a seminar on training and selecting ethnic minority cadres, also mentioned that a Communist Party member "on the one hand, must correctly understand and exemplarily implement the Party's religious policy, respect and protect the freedom of religious belief, and in daily life respect and appropriately follow ethnic customs and habits to avoid becoming detached from the masses; on the other hand, every Party member and cadre must be a steadfast atheist, draw a clear line between their worldview and religious belief, and must not believe in religion or participate in religious activities." [18]

This shows that Party members must take the lead in comprehensively and correctly understanding and exemplarily implementing the policy of freedom of religious belief—respecting and protecting the masses' freedom of religion while simultaneously upholding and propagating atheism. These two seemingly contradictory aspects can only be grasped through a deep understanding of Marxist atheist thought, because only a thoroughgoing atheist can truly respect and guarantee the freedom of religious belief. Moving from the requirement that Party members must not believe in religion to the requirement that they must uphold and propagate atheism not only signifies higher demands placed on members but also represents a deeper understanding and further development of Marxist atheist thought.

3. Strengthening the propagation of atheism and improving the scientific and cultural quality of the people. In 1990, during his inspection of Xinjiang, Jiang Zemin pointed out that the propagation and education of atheism for the masses should be distinguished from the requirements for Party members and should be combined with the specific practice of building socialist "material and spiritual civilizations" (两个文明). We must be adept at using materialist viewpoints to explain the origin of religious belief and work hard to improve the scientific and cultural quality of the people. [19] In the same year, during a seminar with representatives at the National Religious Work Conference, he spoke again: "[...]"

"Communist Party members not only cannot believe in religion, but must also propagate atheism and a scientific worldview to the masses." He further pointed out that one cannot adopt a "Leftist" attitude toward religious belief simply because of a belief in atheism, nor can one cease the propagation of atheism and the cultivation of "Four-Have" [16] new persons simply because of the existence of the policy of freedom of religious belief. [32] In 1991, the "Notice of the CPC Central Committee and the State Council on Certain Issues Concerning the Further Improvement of Religious Work" also mentioned that we must "actively carry out education in dialectical materialism and historical materialism (including atheism) among the masses, especially the vast numbers of young people, so as to cultivate the vast numbers of young people into a new generation with ideals, morality, culture, and discipline." [33] In 1992, Chen Junsheng pointed out in his speech at the National Conference of Directors of Religious Affairs Bureaus that the focus of religious work is in rural areas, and the focus of atheistic propaganda and education should also be placed in rural areas. When conducting propaganda and education, one must also consider the cultural level of the peasant masses, ensuring the content is easy to understand and the forms are lively. [34] In 1995, the "Notice of the General Office of the CPC Central Committee and the General Office of the State Council Transmitting the 'Certain Opinions of the Central Propaganda Department and the Ministry of Agriculture on Deeply Carrying Out Socialist Spiritual Civilization Construction Activities in Rural Areas'" proposed to "strengthen the propaganda of basic common sense regarding materialism and atheism, as well as other scientific knowledge." [35]

  1. Managing religious affairs according to law. Starting from the late 1970s, through more than ten years of work implementing religious policies and continuously resolving remaining historical issues, religious work achieved certain successes. By the 1990s, new problems emerged both internationally and domestically, including the issue of overseas forces using religion for infiltration, as well as chaos in religious activities in some domestic locales, such as illegal proselytizing and criminal activities utilizing religion. In 1990, Li Peng's speech at the plenary session of the National Religious Work Conference proposed managing religious affairs according to law—that is, the government carries out administrative management and supervision over the implementation of laws, regulations, and policies related to religion. The speech specifically mentioned the need to be highly vigilant against and resolutely resist the use of religion by overseas hostile forces to infiltrate our country. [36] In 1991, the "Notice of the CPC Central Committee and the State Council on Certain Issues Concerning the Further Improvement of Religious Work" also emphasized the need to manage religious affairs according to law, resolutely stop illegal proselytizing activities, and resolutely resist attempts by overseas religious hostile forces to control our country's religions. Furthermore, the notice mentioned the need to resolutely crack down on criminal activities utilizing religion. [37] During this period, a series of religion-related regulations and ordinances were issued, including the Implementation Measures for the Registration and Management of Religious Social Organizations, the Regulations on the Management of Sites for Religious Activities, and the Provisions on the Management of Religious Activities of Aliens within the Territory of the People's Republic of China, among others.

At the same time, it was proposed to give play to the role of patriotic religious organizations, advocating that religious organizations guide religious believers to love their religion, love the country, and love socialism. It was also proposed to further mobilize the enthusiasm of religious circles, better give play to the role of religious circles, and contribute to modernization construction, etc. In addition, explicit punitive measures were proposed for Communist Party members who do not abide by religious policies. For example, for those Communist Party members who participate in religious activities in violation of policy and persist in not changing after education, they should be urged to withdraw from the Party; those who participate in inciting religious fanaticism and still do not repent after serious criticism and education shall be expelled from the Party. [38] In short, during this stage, faced with the new situation, religious work began to be carried out comprehensively, both adhering to the implementation of the policy of freedom of religious belief and adhering to the management of religious affairs according to law, with the aim of guiding religion to adapt to socialist society.

III. From the late 1990s to the 21st Century

During this stage, building a moderately prosperous society in all respects [17] was our goal for social development. Under this grand goal, there were new changes in the ideological understanding of Marxist atheism. Specifically, the propaganda and education of Marxist atheism were placed in a more prominent position, used to arm and educate the whole Party and the people of the whole country, and to resist and prevent the infiltration of overseas religious forces. At the same time, it was proposed to comprehensively understand the role of religion and to bring into play the active role of religious personnel and religious believers.

After the Falun Gong incident in 1999, the "Notice of the CPC Central Committee on Not Allowing Communist Party Members to Practice 'Falun Dafa'" pointed out that through study and education activities, "the vast numbers of Party members should generally receive an education in Marxist materialism and atheism, enhance their political sensitivity and political discernment, firmly establish a correct worldview, outlook on life, and values, and strengthen their communist ideals and beliefs." [39]

Subsequently, multiple Central documents proposed strengthening the propaganda and education work of materialism and atheism. The "Notice of the CPC Central Committee Transmitting the 'Decision on Certain Issues Concerning the Ideological and Political Construction of the Army under the Conditions of Reform, Opening Up, and Developing a Socialist Market Economy'" explicitly emphasized: "Closely grasp the fundamental task of arming [the military] with Deng Xiaoping Theory; integrate this with the situation, tasks, and the actual thinking of officers and soldiers; deeply carry out education in patriotic dedication, the revolutionary outlook on life, respecting cadres and loving soldiers, and arduous struggle [18]; propagate materialism and atheism; oppose idealism, feudal superstition, and pseudoscience; and resolutely resist the erosion and influence of money-worship, hedonism, extreme individualism, and various erroneous trends of thought." [40] The "Certain Opinions of the CPC Central Committee on Strengthening and Improving Ideological and Political Work" proposed "strengthening education in Marxist materialism and atheism, and vigorously promoting the scientific spirit." [41] In 2001, the "Notice of the CPC Central Committee on Issuing the 'National Cadre Education and Training Plan for 2001–2005'" also emphasized "persisting in regularly carrying out education in ideals and beliefs, education in Party spirit, Party style, and Party discipline, mass line education, policy and legal system education, and education in atheism." [42]

In 2000, in Jiang Zemin's speech reporting on the "Three Stresses" [19] situation of the Standing Committee of the Political Bureau of the CPC Central Committee, he pointed out: "We must guide all Party comrades to strive to study and master the perspective of historical materialism, actively propagate atheistic thought, and persist in using the Marxist view of religion to educate the masses of all ethnic groups." [43] In 2000, in his speech at the Central Conference on Ideological and Political Work, he proposed: "We must strengthen the propaganda and education of scientific knowledge, scientific methods, scientific thought, and the scientific spirit throughout society, helping and guiding people to draw a clear line between materialism and idealism, atheism and theism, science and superstition, and civilization and ignorance, and enhancing their ability to identify and resist various forms of idealism, feudal superstition, and pseudoscience." [44] In a 2001 speech at the National Conference of Propaganda Department Directors, he pointed out: "We Communists are atheists; our country is a socialist country. Naturally, we cannot use the ideologies and values of feudalism or capitalism, nor can we use religion as the spiritual pillar for the whole of society." [45] This explicitly proposed that atheism, along with science and materialism, should be taken as the source of ideological and spiritual sustenance for our country's Party and people.

In 2001, Jiang Zemin's speech at the National Religious Work Conference, "On Religious Issues," systematically expounded the theoretical achievements of the Sinicization of Marxist atheism during this stage. He proposed: "We Communists adhere to Marxist atheism, but we cannot simply equate the difference between atheism and theism with political opposition." Furthermore, "although atheists and theists differ in their ideological beliefs, they can be consistent on principled issues involving political stance and political direction, such as patriotism, safeguarding the unity of the motherland, and supporting socialism." [46] At the same time, it was once again emphasized: "Communist Party members not only cannot believe in religion, but should also actively propagate atheism, a scientific worldview, and correct viewpoints opposing feudal superstition." [47]

In 2003, Li Changchun pointed out in his speech at the National Conference on Propaganda and Ideological Work: "We must unremittingly conduct in-depth education throughout society on the Party's basic theory, basic line, basic program, and basic experience; deeply conduct education in patriotism, collectivism, and socialism; and deeply conduct education in Marxist materialism, atheism, the scientific spirit, and scientific methods, guiding people to firmly establish the common ideal of socialism with Chinese characteristics and a correct worldview, outlook on life, and values." [48]

Since 2003, the CPC Central Committee and its main leaders have issued a series of instructions emphasizing the need to strengthen the research, propaganda, and education of atheism. In 2003, in an instruction regarding the "Proposal on Further Strengthening the Research, Propaganda, and Education of Scientific Atheism" by Ren Jiyu, president of the China Association for Atheism, and others, the main leader of the Party Central Committee pointed out: "Research, propaganda, and education regarding atheism is a long-term task and needs to be included in the overall deployment of scientific research planning and propaganda and ideological work, and carried out with perseverance. Especially, Communist Party members should firmly establish a materialistic worldview. This is not contradictory to the implementation of the Party's policy of freedom of religious belief." [49]

In 2004, the "Notice on Further Strengthening the Research, Propaganda, and Education of Marxist Atheism," issued jointly by the Organization Department of the CPC Central Committee, the Propaganda Department, the Central Civilization Office, the Central Party School, the Ministry of Education, and the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, explicitly pointed out that schools of all levels and types are important fronts for conducting Marxist atheistic propaganda and education. Centering on the goal of cultivating "Four-Have" new persons, they should adhere to the principle of the separation of national education and religion, include Marxist atheistic propaganda and education in the syllabi for political theory courses, ideological and moral character courses, and relevant specialized courses, and effectively ensure that teaching content and requirements are implemented.

In 2007, the United Front Work Department of the CPC Central Committee, the Ministry of Education, the Ministry of Public Security, and the State Administration for Religious Affairs jointly issued the "Opinions on Educating and Guiding University Students to Correctly Understand and Treat Religious Issues" (Document No. 16). It proposed adhering to the principle of the separation of education and religion, resolutely resisting the infiltration activities of overseas hostile forces utilizing religion, and cultivating students to establish a correct worldview, national view, and religious view. In 2011, the "Opinions on Doing a Good Job in Resisting Overseas Infiltration into Universities Utilizing Religion and Preventing Campus Proselytizing" (Document No. 18), transmitted by the General Office of the CPC Central Committee and the General Office of the State Council from the Central United Front Work Department and the Ministry of Education, explicitly proposed taking Marxist atheism education as the foundational work for resisting infiltration and preventing campus proselytizing. The document proposed many specific measures to block the channels of overseas infiltration into universities utilizing religion and campus proselytizing, and emphasized handling relevant infiltration and proselytizing issues according to law. It especially emphasized enriching the exposition of scientific atheism in ideological and political theory courses and relevant specialized courses.

The aforementioned instructions, notices, and documents all demonstrate that Chinese Communists, based on the changed international and domestic situations, have developed Marxist atheism and proposed more specific and rich ideas. In addition to highlighting and emphasizing the propaganda and education of atheism, Chinese Communists also proposed a more comprehensive and in-depth understanding of the role of religion. In 2006, Hu Jintao pointed out in his speech at the National United Front Work Conference: "We Chinese Communists are atheists and do not believe in any religion, but we are also historical materialists. We must view religion from a scientific and historical perspective, comprehensively understand the profound historical, social, and psychological roots of the emergence and existence of religion, comprehensively understand the objective reality that religion will exist for a long time in socialist society, comprehensively understand the complex situation where religious issues are intertwined with political, economic, cultural, and ethnic factors, and comprehensively understand the social phenomenon of religion's significant influence on a considerable portion of the masses." He also specifically pointed out: "Our protection of the freedom of religious belief is not intended to promote religious belief." [50]

In 2003, during a speech at the second collective study session of the Political Bureau of the CPC Central Committee, Hu Jintao proposed that under new historical conditions, we must adhere to the Marxist stance, viewpoints, and methods. He emphasized the need to comprehensively recognize the objective reality that religion will exist for a long period in socialist society; to comprehensively recognize the complex situation in which religious issues are intertwined with political, economic, cultural, ethnic, and other factors; and to comprehensively recognize the special status of religious factors within contradictions among the people [20]. He urged the active exploration and mastery of the inherent laws governing religion to continuously improve the level of religious work. At the same time, he proposed adhering to the Party's basic policy on religious work, focusing on stimulating the patriotic enthusiasm of religious believers and their initiative in building the cause of socialism with Chinese characteristics, thereby uniting them with non-believers to contribute jointly to economic and social development.

From 2003 onward, relevant Party documents summarized the basic policy on religious work into four sentences: "Fully implement the Party's policy of freedom of religious belief, manage religious affairs in accordance with the law, adhere to the principle of independence and self-management, and actively guide religion to adapt to socialist society." In 2007, the revised Constitution of the Communist Party of China included for the first time the requirement to "fully implement the Party's basic policy on religious work and unite religious believers to contribute to economic and social development." Regarding the management of religious affairs in accordance with the law, the State Council promulgated the Regulations on Religious Affairs in 2004.

Generally speaking, the situation facing our country during this period became more complex. On one hand, external hostile forces utilized religious banners and various channels to conduct infiltration [21] against our country, undermining ethnic unity and attempting to split national unity. On the other hand, contemporary trends of ignorance and superstition still exerted considerable influence in the social life of our country. Furthermore, there were differing voices within the domestic sphere, especially in academic circles, regarding the development of religion and the promotion of atheism. Under these circumstances, the Party Central Committee maintained a clear understanding and further developed and enriched the thought of Marxist atheism.

In summary, across these three stages, Chinese Communists have consistently adhered to the basic stance of Marxist atheism, such as upholding the policy of freedom of religious belief, maintaining the separation of church and state, and insisting that all Communist Party members must establish an atheistic worldview, are forbidden from believing in religion, and must persist in atheist propaganda and education. However, the understanding and development of Marxist atheism in each stage have differed regarding issues such as the role of religion in socialist society, the relationship between religion and cults [22], the practical application of the principle of separating education from religion, and the status of atheist propaganda and education. These differences are closely linked to the socialist construction tasks and development goals of our country in each respective stage, and they were formed through the process of handling the distinct practical problems faced during each period.