Ma Jinfei: Superstitious Behavior—An Explanation Based on Control Strategy Theory

Abstract: Despite the rapid advancement of science and technology and the debunking of many traditional superstitious ideas, the forms of superstition are, in fact, constantly being reinvented. Superstition permeates all sectors of both traditional and modern society, transcending all socioeconomic statuses and educational levels. Using control strategy theory as a perspective, this study attempts to explain superstitious behavior through its psychological causes, elucidating its situational triggers, cognitive factors, emotional factors, and adaptive functions. As the public’s scientific literacy improves, superstitious behavior will inevitably be eradicated in the future.

Keywords: superstitious behavior; psychological causes; control strategy

I. Introduction

Despite the rapid advancement of science and technology and the debunking of many traditional superstitious ideas, the forms of superstition are, in fact, constantly being reinvented. Superstition permeates all sectors of both traditional and modern society, transcending all socioeconomic statuses and educational levels ^[1]. A 2006 questionnaire survey showed that the most common superstitious psychological tendency among contemporary university students is traditional secular superstition ^[2], such as "online divination"—which is popular among students and consists of computer-based fortune-telling cloaked in a so-called scientific garb. A 2008 questionnaire survey indicated that 12.9% of university students held beliefs in souls and deities; 8.6% held strong fatalistic beliefs; and 6.3% believed in supernatural abilities. Furthermore, 3.1% believed in the theory of luck, 25.5% would wear lucky charms, 26.1% engaged in praying to gods or Buddhas ^[1], 6.2% had played superstitious games, 20.6% had engaged in divination, and 13.9% exhibited taboo behaviors. Additionally, 31.2% believed in superstition to "pursue the auspicious and avoid the calamitous" ^[2], 20.7% believed superstition could provide psychological support, 6.3% felt they could gain a sense of control through superstition, and 32.4% were simply curious about it. These data all indicate that the phenomenon of superstition among university students has become an issue that cannot be ignored ^[3]. Why is a well-educated group like university students easily attracted to superstition? One possible answer is that people in different eras all face similar life circumstances.

II. Control Strategy Theory

Rothbaum and others proposed the control strategy theory in 1982, postulating that individuals always strive to control the external world and adopt certain control strategies. Control has a dual-process structure, distinguishing between primary control strategies and secondary control strategies. A primary control strategy is one where the individual takes direct action with the aim of influencing the external environment; a secondary control strategy is one where the individual aims to change their own cognitions ^[4]. Heckhausen and Schulz further proposed that in uncertain situations, individuals will first attempt primary control. Subsequently, if the situation exceeds the individual's capabilities and primary control is perceived as unable to achieve the control objective, the individual—in order to reduce the negative consequences of control failure, adapt to and comply with the environment, and regain a sense of control—will resort to compensatory secondary control. Secondary control may function as a buffer against negative influences or learned helplessness ^[5].

Rothbaum et al. distinguished several subtypes of secondary control strategies, one of which is called the "secondary illusory control strategy." This relies on magical or superstitious thinking strategies and refers to a strategy where individuals attribute desired outcomes to factors such as luck, fate, and chance. For instance, they may accept the arrangements of fate while believing that fate is benevolent toward them and that miracles will occur. Surveys show that when facing the fragility of life and human limits, or when individuals are powerless, the elderly may unburden themselves mentally by "entrusting themselves to God," thereby coping more easily and gaining a sense of control—an illusion of control ^[6]. When asked how they cope with stressful events, the elderly often reply: "Believe in God" ^[7]. People use various superstitious means and rituals to control the situation rather than relying on self-control; in short, the illusory control strategy is an attempt by individuals to align themselves with supernatural forces.

III. The Explanation of Superstitious Behavior via Control Strategy Theory

(1) Situational Triggers

There are many critical moments in life where we have only limited opportunities to express ourselves; the individual needs to make a final push to perform at their best. For example, students often have only one chance to defend a thesis or take a final exam. The result of a major exam or interview can be extremely important and determine the course of a person's life. Similarly, athletes rely on their performance on the spot when competing for Olympic qualification. Given the importance of competitive outcomes for an individual’s survival and development, most people will prepare as thoroughly as possible for the trials they face. Just as students study hard before exams, athletes train intensely before championships to achieve optimal physical condition. However, no matter how well-prepared one is, people still feel that certain factors in these competitive situations are uncontrollable. For instance, students cannot determine the exam questions, and athletes cannot control external factors like opponents or competition conditions (e.g., weather, equipment quality).

Surveys show that groups in uncertain and stressful situations are most likely to exhibit superstitious behavior, such as gamblers, sailors, financial investors, soldiers ^[1], and athletes ^[8]. According to control strategy theory, the reason uncertain and stressful situations easily induce superstitious behavior is that in uncontrollable situations, a simple way to cope with stress is to appeal to luck, with people hoping that good luck will help them perform at their peak. In social psychology, luck is viewed as a causal category outside of personal factors (such as ability, effort, or more stable situational factors like task difficulty) that people use to explain success or failure ^[9]. Sometimes it is equated with random probability or chance, and sometimes it specifically refers to supernatural causal origins, often related to fate ^[10]. In fact, most people rely on superstitious thoughts and rituals to pray for good luck or avoid bad luck ^[8]. For example, Michael Jordan (a graduate of the University of North Carolina) famously wore his old blue UNC shorts under his NBA uniform throughout his career for good luck. Similarly, the famous tennis player Bjorn Borg would not shave during a championship tournament. Professional golfer Tiger Woods wears a red shirt on Sundays to seek good luck, as championship finals are usually held on Sundays.

(2) Cognitive Factors

According to control strategy theory, superstitious behavior is a secondary illusory control strategy built on invalid beliefs. The attribution does not match objective reality; there is no causal connection whatsoever between the behavior and the outcome. Heckhausen and Schulz argue that the goal of superstitious behavior is not to directly control the external environment, but to gain self-confidence by distorting one's own cognitions ^[5]. For example, Ma Jinfei’s research indicates that in gain-framed situations, when assessing medium risks, university students obtain risk-based returns by actively "controlling" random events; when assessing high risks, they obtain certain returns through conservative strategies. In loss-framed situations, when assessing high risks, students attempt to avoid loss by actively "controlling" random events. This irrational decision-making can be understood as a blind superstition regarding their own personal luck {11}.

Interestingly, research shows that people sometimes adopt superstitious strategies solely to gain a sense of control, without actually endorsing the power of the superstition {12}. For instance, research on superstitious thoughts in uncertain and stressful situations indicates that people will attempt to use superstitious strategies when they cannot determine the outcome of an event and lack a sense of control {13}; however, while using these strategies, they maintain a dismissive attitude toward their efficacy. Research on superstition in sports shows that although athletes frequently use superstitious strategies (such as prayer, clothing rituals, and lucky charms), they generally do not believe in the actual effectiveness of these superstitions {14}~{16}. Therefore, in uncertain and stressful situations, even if individuals recognize that superstitious behavior is ineffective, they will engage in it with a "believe it or not" attitude to gain a sense of control {17}. This sense of control is merely an illusion of control {18}.

(3) Emotional Factors

When facing a major turning point in life, feelings of tension and anxiety naturally arise. A temporary sense of loss of control causes anxiety, while a long-term sense of loss of control triggers learned helplessness. Learned helplessness refers to people believing that the current situation is uncontrollable, a belief that then affects their performance in subsequent controllable situations {19}.

According to control strategy theory, humans possess a motivation to avoid the negative emotions triggered by the perception of uncontrollability. In emergencies, adopting illusory control strategies can reduce the aversion associated with losing control {20}. Research on the illusion of control shows that people do not necessarily exhibit learned helplessness in uncontrollable situations; in fact, they may develop an illusion regarding the causal relationship between behavior and outcome—that is, they fail to recognize that the behavior is independent of the result. Based on this, Matute argues that learned helplessness and the illusion of control represent two opposite poles of the same continuum {21}. This explains why superstitious behavior is so prevalent in reality: in uncontrollable situations, individuals—driven by the need to gain a sense of competence through control or to maintain a sense of control to alleviate the anxiety of losing it—utilize superstitious behavior to obtain a sense of control, though this sense is, of course, illusory {22}. For example, Keinan used the school environment as a background for research on superstition, approaching students at Tel Aviv University either one and a half hours before an exam (high-stress group) or during a regular study day (low-stress group). Participants were asked several questions, some of which were designed to elicit superstitious behavior (such as "knocking on wood"). For instance, participants were asked if they had ever been involved in a traffic accident. The experimenter recorded whether the participant knocked on wood (the phrase "knock on wood" literally means touching something made of wood to ensure good luck or ward off bad luck—a classic English idiom). As Keinan predicted, subjects in the high-stress group knocked on wood much more frequently than those in the low-stress group {13}.

(4) Adaptive Functions

A lack of a sense of control often leads to a lack of self-confidence {23}. Just as excellent performance requires study and training, the cultivation of self-confidence is also necessary {24}. So, how can we maintain a sense of confidence and control to better adapt to the environment?

According to control strategy theory, superstitious people generally believe that luck is a stable personal trait {25}, believing that some people are simply born lucky. When people talk about luck, they mostly refer to a supporting force they can rely on, treating luck as a way to control outcomes. Many students and athletes report engaging in superstitious thoughts and behaviors to improve their performance ^[1]. Neil suggests that superstition functions as a "psychological placebo" {26}. That is to say, superstitious behavior does lead to better performance simply because people believe in its effect. Keinan explained this phenomenon based on the same line of thought {13}, arguing that superstition and magical thinking help individuals reduce stress because superstitious thoughts can establish a self-fulfilling prophecy: practical superstition can increase optimism and reduce stress, thereby improving work efficiency.

IV. Implications

According to control strategy theory, in controllable situations, the choice of control strategy takes the form of primary control, which is singularly oriented toward skills and abilities. In uncertain situations, however, an individual will first attempt primary control; if this fails, they will subsequently switch control strategies and opt for secondary control—for example, superstitious behaviors, which function as a secondary illusory control strategy. This allows the individual to obtain an illusion of control and suppress the development of learned helplessness. In situations where both certain and uncertain factors are present, individuals will simultaneously select primary and secondary control strategies. These two control processes operate concurrently, providing a degree of adaptive significance for the individual. Regardless of the era, human beings must confront unknown domains, uncertainty, and stressful situations. The use of superstitious strategies is retained precisely as a secondary control strategy; it helps individuals overcome learned helplessness, regain a sense of control, and serves as a means for people to seek inner peace. Regardless of people’s existing attitudes toward superstition, when their sense of control is weakened, superstitious strategies exert a universal appeal.

It is for this reason that we must use the weapon of science education to sweep away superstition. It is extremely necessary to continue conducting ideological and political education^[3] among the public—and particularly among the university student population—and to popularize scientific and cultural knowledge. This is because scientific knowledge can effectively arouse doubts regarding the efficacy of superstitious strategies. Due to a lack of necessary scientific knowledge, primitive ancestors utilized superstition as a primary control strategy; as a form of primary control, superstition clearly possesses no adaptivity whatsoever. Therefore, in contemporary society, education can prevent superstitious strategies from being utilized as primary control by ignorant minds. As the scientific literacy of the public improves, superstitious behavior will inevitably be eradicated in the future.

References

(Omitted as per source: Standard academic citations 1–26)

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