Du Jiwen: China's Humanistic Tradition and the Spirit of Atheism
China’s Humanistic Tradition of "People as the Foundation and the People as Preeminent"
If humanism in the West began with the Renaissance and subsequently became a dominant social trend that eventually established secular democratic states, then China's humanistic ideals were already percolating in ancient civilization. They developed continuously, becoming the inherent internal driving force for the survival and growth of our nation. Chinese humanism is concentrated in two aspects: regarding the relationship between "Heaven" and "man," it advocates that "man is the foundation" (rén wéi běn); regarding the relationship between the "sovereign" and the "people," it advocates that "the people are preeminent" (mín wéi guì). This is the key to understanding the entirety of Chinese history and its current state.
"Man as the foundation" and "the people as preeminent" are concepts deeply rooted in traditional Chinese culture. The modern scholar Guo Moruo [1] advocated using a "people-centered" (rénmín běnwèi) perspective instead of a "monarch-centered" one to observe the whole of Chinese history; this historical outlook reflects our humanistic tradition. To borrow a term here: traditional Chinese culture is "human-centered" (rén běnwèi) rather than "god-centered" (shén běnwèi).
The religion most characteristic of Chinese tradition can generally be summarized as "revering Heaven and honoring ancestors" (jìng tiān jì zǔ); the attitude toward ghosts and spirits can be summarized by Confucius’s saying, "Respect ghosts and spirits, but keep them at a distance" [2]. What governed all religious concepts remained the shamanic spirit (wūxí jīngshén) [3], which emphasized that human effort can overcome nature. "Revering Heaven and honoring ancestors" is the core of the Confucian religion and a component of its ritual teachings (lǐjiào). Because of "ancestor worship," the question of whether an immortal soul was necessary became a long-standing debate within Confucianism. Because Heaven was "supreme," it required awe and reverence in every sense, thus giving the issue of the relationship between Heaven and man a religious significance. The religious policies of successive dynasties mostly followed this maxim from the Book of Changes (Zhōu Yì): "The sage establishes teachings based on the Way of the Gods (shéndào shèjiào), and the world submits." Why? According to the explanation in the "Shepherding the People" (mùmín) chapter of Guanzi [4]: "If ghosts and spirits are not made clear, the ignorant masses will not be enlightened." The "Way of the Gods" was merely a subject established to educate the "ignorant masses." According to the "Discourse on Heaven" (tiānlùn) in Xunzi [5], "establishing teachings based on the Way of the Gods" was a form of ornamentation for "ritual" (lǐ)—a cultural manifestation of ritual—rather than an affirmation of the real existence of ghosts and spirits: "When the sun or moon is eclipsed, we perform rites to save them; when there is a drought, we perform the rain dance; we practice divination before deciding great matters—this is not because we expect to get what we seek, but to provide cultural ornamentation (wén). Thus, the superior man considers it ornamentation, while the common people consider it spiritual. To consider it ornamentation is auspicious; to consider it spiritual is ill-omened." They both believed that only the ignorant masses believe in ghosts and spirits, while the "great man" or "superior man" (jūnzǐ) should not.
However, on the other hand, the shaman (wūxí), as a product of the separation of man from nature and man from god, marked man's self-awareness of his own power; it was the conscious effort of man to become his own master. Mythological stories such as Sun Wukong causing havoc in the Heavenly Palace, Nezha churning the sea, Jingwei filling the sea [6], the Heavenly Maiden descending to the mortal world, and Jiang Ziya canonizing the gods all embody a refusal to yield to the "supreme" and a fighting spirit that seeks to subdue the "supreme." Consequently, as the magical arts of the shamans—including obscure behaviors like divination, summoning spirits, exorcising demons, and healing—were gradually replaced by the growth of empirical knowledge and science and technology, their spirit of striving for man to be his own master (especially the aspects of independence, self-rule, self-respect, and self-reliance) was transformed into the internal character of our nation. This character is also clearly reflected in traditional religious views.
The traditional religious landscape of our country roughly consisted of the concurrent and merging flows of the "Three Teachings": Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism. Compared to Western religions, the commonality of these three teachings is concentrated in this human-centered spirit. Three points are most prominent:
First, the "sacred" is created by humans. Those who were clever became shamans; those who were sagely became the Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors [7], as well as the sages of Confucianism, the immortals of Taoism, and the Buddhas of Buddhism. All were heroes among men; without exception, they originated from humanity rather than transcending or lording over humanity—much less being hostile toward humanity or punishing humanity at every turn.
Second, everyone can become a god or a sage. One of the Confucian tenets is that everyone can become a sage; an important proposition in Buddhism is that "all sentient beings possess Buddha-nature"; Taoism teaches how the physical body can be refined into an immortal, such that even "chickens and dogs ascend to heaven" [8]. The ideal realm of Buddhism is the Pure Land, and the ideal realm of Taoism is Heaven; as long as one practices according to the "Dharma" or method, everyone can enter, without needing to first obtain the status of the "elect."
Third, gods are created by men, rather than gods creating men. Creating and canonizing gods, or demoting and destroying gods, has a long history in China. From emperors and generals down to the common people and peddlers, creating and destroying gods became almost a fashion; everyone possessed such qualification and ability. From ancient times to the present, it is impossible to count how many gods have been created or destroyed. Heroes whom people admire, men of purpose whom people love, one’s own ancestors, and things that are poorly understood can all be honored as gods. Every plant, animal, or small object—such as snakes, turtles, weasels, old trees, or old utensils—can also be enshrined as a god. Of course, they also frequently suffer the fate of being demoted, destroyed, or forgotten. From the vast firmament, the Five Sacred Mountains, and the Four Seas, down to villages, households, and even corners of courtyards, latrines, and stoves—all have governing deities. Guilds and professions each have their own patron gods. All these "gods" were established because of people or events, and they must serve and work for people; otherwise, they lose their offerings and their value for existence. The fact that belief belongs entirely to the sphere of individual freedom, and the resulting frequent fluctuations and shifts in belief, became a prominent feature of Chinese religion.
Precisely because of this, there has been no religious hatred, religious persecution, or religious wars in Chinese history, and atheism has had a broad space for activity. Several incidents of destroying Buddhism or banning sects occurred in Chinese history, but these were always because they harmed the practical interests of people, and had nothing to do with religious belief itself.
Therefore, the Chinese cultural tradition is pluralistic; polytheism and atheism coexist without conflict. Thus, it is also tolerant; it does not recognize the existence of a unique god who created the world and man, and it cannot tolerate the exclusive supremacy of a single god. In Chinese legend, the one who divided heaven and earth was "Pangu," and the one who created humans was "Nüwa"; both were ancestors in our mythology, ranked among the Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors. They neither led to the formation of religious organizations nor became objects of cult-like worship. This is also why Chinese culture has a secular tradition, and where it differs most from the Western monotheistic tradition. If some in the West say China is an "atheist" country, it would be better to say it is a country that denies the exclusive supremacy of one god while simultaneously respecting both polytheism and atheism. In this regard, religion does not "become a problem" in China; thus, in modern Chinese revolutions, religion did not become a major political issue that shook the social structure, as it did in Western bourgeois revolutions.
The Development from Humanism to Atheism
The humanism embodied in Chinese religion is reflected in a moral outlook where secular ethics determine religious morality—unlike monotheistic religious countries which use religious morality to regulate secular values and moral systems.
Confucianism itself is secular and has been the carrier of Chinese ethical relationships and moral concepts since ancient times. Within the scope of ethics and morality, Taoism is merely a supplement to Confucianism. Buddhism is the only foreign religion [9]; its ability to gain a foothold in China and integrate into traditional Chinese culture best illustrates the depth and strength of Chinese secular morality.
Buddhism was introduced to China around the beginning of the common era. In its land of origin, it prided itself on renouncing the family and the world and loathing the human body—concepts completely opposite to Confucian ethics. Therefore, from the beginning, it sought to reconcile this difference, eventually unifying Chinese Buddhism under the name of "Mahayana" (the Great Vehicle) and aligning it with Confucian "moral teachings" (míngjiào).
"Buddha" means an enlightened or wise one, taking the enlightenment of life and the grasping of truth as the path to liberation. Philosophically, it promotes the theory of "dependent origination" (yuánqǐ) and opposes the "single-cause theory"; religiously, it opposes the Brahmanic theory of a heavenly god creating the world and man, instead advocating "karmic retribution and reincarnation." It categorizes "Heaven" as one type of sentient being in the world, placed on an equal secular series with humans and animals, subject to the same laws of karma. Anyone can be born into "Heaven," and those in "Heaven" can also fall into hell; the key lies in their individual thoughts and actions—what kind of image and environment they have created for themselves.
This religious worldview fits very well with the Chinese humanistic tradition. Meanwhile, "Mahayana" strongly advocates "entering the world" (rùshì) to "save all sentient beings," affirms realistic human relationships, proposes moral principles such as the "Ten Good Acts," interprets the Confucian "Five Constants" [10] through the Buddhist "Five Precepts," respects the secular masses, and is willing to act as a bridge for the liberation of the secular masses; hence the saying "All dharmas are equal, with no high or low." This is vastly different from monotheistic moral and value views built on the foundation of faith in and awe of God—such as the basic dogmas of "original sin" and "redemption" or the Mosaic "Ten Commandments." Christianity was introduced to China as early as the Tang Dynasty and passed through the Yuan and Ming periods up to the Opium War; for over a thousand years, it could never take root on Chinese soil. There may be many reasons, but its monotheistic exclusivity in doctrine and its exclusiveness in moral values must be among the most important.
After China entered the modern era, the nation grew weak and was bullied by foreign powers. The traditional Confucian ritual teachings faced severe challenges; thus, summarizing the successes and failures of ancient thought and learning from the West became two important tasks for awakening intellectuals. Regarding the issues discussed here, the results of this learning and summarization were: first, "religious reform"—the Chinese nation also needed religion to rouse the national spirit and provide a spiritual guarantee for transforming old China; second, "science and democracy"—the most urgent path for China's revitalization was science, technology, and a democratic system to change our backward mode of production and feudal autocracy.
Among the literati advocating for "saving the nation through religion," the Reformists (wéixīn pài) [11] were the mainstream: Kang Youwei established the "Confucian Church" (Kǒngjiào huì), seeking to elevate traditional Confucianism to a "state religion"; Liang Qichao promoted Buddhism to save the world, hoping to rouse the national spirit by reforming the national character. Zhang Taiyan [12], as a representative of the Revolutionaries, wrote "On Establishing Religion" while also publishing "On Atheism"; he used "atheism" to oppose Western Christian monotheism and used "religious theory" to expand upon Buddhist Yogacara philosophy, striving to build the national spirit on the foundations of "reason" and "self-reliance." These theories of saving the nation through religion shared a distinct feature: stimulating the self-respect, self-confidence, and the cohesive force and passion required to protect the nation and the race. But the result was total ineffectiveness.
What truly changed the face of old China was "science and democracy." The earliest advocates for importing Western science and technology and replacing the imperial examination system with school education were the members of the "New Learning" (Western learning) movement launched at the end of the Qing Dynasty. Zhang Zhidong wrote Exhortation to Study (Quànxuépian), specifically viewing modern education as the foundation for a strong nation; for this reason, he advocated that—aside from preserving a few necessary temples and ancestral halls—religious buildings should all be converted into schools to remedy the shortage of educational facilities. He placed the development of science and technology education above religion. The "May Fourth New Culture Movement" raised the banners of "science and democracy," taking the popularization of culture as its direction, and promoted traditional humanism to an entirely new height, providing a brand-new impetus for the progress of the entire society.
The figures of the "May Fourth" era generally underwent a baptism in the Western Renaissance and Enlightenment. They used science to criticize "spiritualism" and sweep away feudal superstitions; they used Western concepts of human rights and freedom to combat the intrusion of Christianity and defend the independence of national education—the "Anti-Religion Movement" (fēi zōngjiào yùndòng) co-initiated by the educator Cai Yuanpei was a landmark event. Shortly thereafter, there was the "Debate on Science and Metaphysics" (kēxué yǔ xuánxué zhī biàn) [13], in which Chen Duxiu, Hu Shi, and others strongly advocated liberating the "outlook on life" from the domination of "theism and the theory of the immortality of the soul," establishing a "scientific outlook on life" and specifically naming it "atheism." They objectively reflected the direction of China's mainstream culture from that point forward.
The humanistic spirit is deeply rooted in the national cultural consciousness.
The humanistic spirit carried by Confucianism, which established the traditional categories of morality, is consistently and deeply embedded in our nation’s cultural consciousness. The various revolutions, including the May Fourth Movement [14], did not overthrow this spirit; rather, they were perhaps an eruption of it. Let us take morality as an example—how is morality produced? How does it change? How can we effectively raise the level of social morality? Traditional culture provides us with answers. On these questions, traditional culture offers two answers: one related to society and one related to human nature. Both are established on the foundation of being "people-centered" (以人为本).
First, let us look at the answer related to society. This also takes two forms. The first may be called "determinism by the conditions of people’s livelihood." This was the common view among the ancients for solving moral problems, most representatively expressed by Guan Zhong’s [15] dictum: "When the granaries are full, the people understand etiquette and justice; when food and clothing are sufficient, they understand honor and disgrace." "Etiquette and justice" belong to the realm of ethical norms, while "honor and disgrace" belong to the category of morality. To maintain normal social ethics and good moral standards, the prosperity of the state and the people must be the grand prerequisite. Here, human survival and basic warmth and nourishment are the decisive factors for the level of ethics and morality; God is of no use, and pure preaching is of no use. In the "Shepherding the People" chapter of the Guanzi, there is another sentence: "The world does not suffer from a lack of wealth, but from a lack of people to distribute it." A proverb from the era of Confucius was even more explicit: "He who rules a state or a household does not worry about scarcity, but about inequality." Both indicate that when moral problems emerge, they involve the distribution of existing wealth. Under normal social conditions, the prosperity of the people combined with fair distribution is the prerequisite for maintaining good ethical relations and noble morality. Conversely, noble morality and good ethical relations are often reflected in the struggle for the development of the productive forces and social justice; none of this has anything to do with whether one believes in religion.
The second may be called "social system determinism." This originates from the famous "Evolution of Rites" (礼运) chapter of the Record of Rites (礼记). Its concept of "the world belongs to the public" (天下为公)—where "public" refers to the public ownership of property—and its concept of "Great Harmony" (大同 [16]) refer to social equality. In such a society, ethical relations between people are naturally good, and every individual's moral character is naturally noble. Therefore, as institutionalized ethics and morality used for indoctrination, they have no need to exist, let alone the need for the inducements or threats of spirits and gods. However, with the rise of the "world as a private household" (天下为家) private ownership system, the state apparatus, rules, and regulations emerged from private property, creating a need to regulate social relations; thus, ethics and morality came into being as the times required. In this sense, ethics and morality are products of private ownership and have nothing to do with religion or God. Similar views are found in the Laozi: "When the Great Way [17] is abandoned, there is benevolence and righteousness. When wisdom and intelligence appear, there is great hypocrisy. When the six relations are not in harmony, there is filial piety and compassion. When the state is in chaos, there are loyal ministers." This also demonstrates that moral preaching is a manifestation of everyone pursuing private interests under the "household-world" system, and a reaction to the ethical corruption caused by the "abandonment of the Great Way." Therefore, it explicitly opposes ruling the country through morality. Moral problems are rooted first in socio-economic problems, and their ultimate solution requires the perfection of the social system. This is one of the most valuable ideas provided by the Confucian tradition.
Second is the answer related to the theory of human nature. This is another important Confucian viewpoint: morality is not only needed by society but also stems from the natural essence of human beings. Whether this natural essence is good or evil, it equally originates from internal human needs. Thus, for Confucians, there is no "original sin," nor is there a need for "redemption" by God; there is only the consideration of "human nature."
The early representatives of the "theory of human nature" were likely Mencius, Gaozi, and Xunzi. Gaozi’s famous sayings were, first, "Appetite and sex are nature," and second, "Life is what is meant by nature." To seek life, and to live it better—this is human nature. The basic prerequisites of life are food and sex: "food" is the prerequisite for maintaining current life, while "sex" is the guarantee for producing life and allowing the kin-group to continue. In this sense, the need to maintain life and solve practical problems of people’s livelihood is "good," while the opposite is "evil." As the saying goes, "the people regard food as their Heaven" [18]; "food" is the primary internal drive governing human behavior.
This thought of Gaozi was inherited by Xunzi, but he made a negative deduction: this "life as nature" is evil, not good. For if people rely entirely on their natural essence to pursue "food" and "sex," they will be no different from animals; the resulting indulgence and greed would cause great damage and harm to social order and interpersonal relations. Therefore, acquired education and the rule of law must be applied: among these, "etiquette and justice" (礼义) are compulsive ethical and moral norms. His basic view was: "Human nature is evil; that which is good is artificial."
Xunzi’s theory of "original evil" was likely directed at Mencius. Mencius was the founder of the theory of "original goodness." His basic view was: "Human nature is good, just as water flows downward; there is no human who is not good, just as there is no water that does not flow down." As for "evil" or the mixture of good and evil, it is primarily caused by the external environment: "In years of harvest, the young people are mostly lazy; in years of famine, the young people are mostly violent. This is not because of a difference in the talent Heaven sent them, but because of what has led them to drown their hearts"—that people are sometimes lazy and sometimes violent is not due to a difference in human nature, but is related to whether the harvests are good or bad. Therefore, Mencius not only emphasized acquired education but also placed equal importance on the problems of people's livelihood.
The theory of human nature occupies an important position in the history of Chinese philosophy and ethics. Although there are various propositions, their common point is the absolute refusal to employ God or other spirits to explain or solve moral problems.
Whether these types of Confucian thoughts belong to "economic determinism" will not be discussed here. However, it is definitely not "cultural determinism," nor does it incorporate religion into the considerations of governing the state. There is a famous dialogue in the Analects: "Ji Lu asked about serving the spirits of the dead. The Master said: 'While you are not able to serve men, how can you serve their spirits?' Ji Lu added: 'I venture to ask about death.' He was answered: 'While you do not know life, how can you know about death?'" This generally expresses the fundamental Confucian attitude on the relationship between believing in spirits and solving human affairs: human affairs come first, spirits and gods come second. What is important is understanding how to "live" well, not designing what happens after death. Why? A statement by a man named Shi Xiao recorded in the Zuo Zhuan [19] can serve as an answer: "When a state is about to rise, its ruler listens to the people; when it is about to perish, he listens to the gods." Whether one listens to the people or to the gods is an important indicator of the rise or fall of a state. The so-called "asking the spirits instead of the common people" (a line by the Tang poet Li Shangyin) is a trope used by poets to depict the image of a faint-hearted or benighted ruler. "Serving men" includes both solving the problems of the people's material civilization and their spiritual civilization; the core is relying on humans, not on gods.
In contrast to certain Western countries that claim to be founded on religion or have religious constitutions, New China has inherited and developed the humanistic tradition, establishing the state and the constitution according to the will of the people, where all power in the Republic belongs to the people. At present, we take being "people-centered" as our foothold and "serving the people" as our fundamental purpose; the governing Party regards faithfully relying on the masses and seeking welfare for the people as its sole source of strength. Believers and non-believers alike belong to the people, enjoying the same rights, fulfilling the same obligations, and bearing the same social responsibilities and historical missions. Whether one believes in a religion or not should become entirely a private matter for the individual, receiving equal protection and respect; however, in national decision-making, there is no place for God or spirits.