Han Qi: The Historical Origins of Marxist Atheism
As is well known, atheist thought is the starting point and cornerstone of Marxism; Marxist atheism represents the advanced stage in the development of atheist thought as a whole. Since the beginning of Reform and Opening-up, various religions have experienced a revival and have achieved significant growth over the past 30-plus years. The five traditional religions, several new religious movements, and various spiritualistic trends of thought have become increasingly active. Simultaneously, cults as well as pseudo-religious fraudsters and "masters" [1] have emerged in endless succession, seriously impacting social security and the normal lives of the people; furthermore, religious extremism has been exploited by hostile forces abroad, becoming a major hidden danger to national security. Given this social situation, strengthening the research and dissemination of Marxist atheism has become a task of paramount importance.
This article places Marxist atheism within the long river of the development of Western atheist thought. By tracing the developmental trajectory of atheist thought and the historical origins of Marxist atheism, and by clarifying several key points in the development of atheist thought, I hope to provide guidance for contemporary research and dissemination, while deriving insights beneficial to the present era.
1. The Developmental Course of Western Atheist Thought
As a concept originating in the West, the connotation and development of atheism have been deeply influenced by Western civilization. In different eras, the manifestations of atheist thought have varied. Based on the development of Western atheist thought, I will briefly introduce its progress through the following stages: the Classical period, the Middle Ages, the Renaissance, the Enlightenment, and the Modern era. All thought has its corresponding material base; however, due to space limitations, this introduction will primarily highlight the main content and points of contention of atheist thought in each period, providing only brief mentions of the relevant social backgrounds and material bases. In the context of world history as a whole, atheism is not considered a "grand theme," yet it is indeed one of those key themes concerning the fate of humanity. Only by clarifying the historical trajectory of atheist thought can we truly understand its connotation and thereby guide today’s research into Marxist atheism.
1. The Classical Period
In the early Greek and Roman thought prior to the emergence of Christianity—what James Thrower calls the Classical period of the history of Western atheism—atheist thought manifested primarily as a naturalistic philosophy that opposed the belief in the gods of traditional religion.
At the beginning of the 6th century BCE, the Ionian school proposed a theory of the natural formation of the world. Subsequently, Heraclitus of Ephesus used naturalism to openly deny that the world was created by gods for the first time. The changes in natural phenomena possess their own laws, namely the Logos; therefore, all theological theories regarding the divine creation or governance of the world were fundamentally untenable. [2]
At the end of the 5th century BCE, Democritus proposed atomism, asserting that the world consists of nothing but atoms—the smallest indivisible particles of matter—and the void. Nature is the manifestation of the interaction of countless atoms governed by accidental forces within the void. Consequently, no form of divinity exists either outside or within nature. The concept of gods present in the human mind originated from dreams; religion itself arose from human ignorance and awe of nature. [3]
From the end of the 4th century to the beginning of the 3rd century BCE, Epicurus argued that the greatest obstacles to achieving internal peace of mind and emotion were religious superstitions—namely, ignorance of the universe and fear of the gods and one's fate after death. He believed that by adopting the naturalistic worldview provided by Democritus, one could eliminate these sources of pain and worry. While Epicurus acknowledged the existence of gods, he maintained they were composed of atoms like everything else and took absolutely no interest in human affairs; thus, fearing them or praying to them was unnecessary. [4]
By the early Roman Empire, although the populace showed great enthusiasm for newly imported Eastern religions, the thought of the upper classes clearly displayed an indifference toward religion. Lucretius inherited the ideas of Epicurus; he reflected calmly on the laws governing the universe and pointed out that gods do not exist and that death marks the end of life, thus we should reconcile ourselves to human existence. He argued that since religion had committed many evils, it should be completely abolished. [5]
Observing and explaining the world in a naturalistic way, and even providing naturalistic accounts of the origins and concepts of religion, was precisely the major contribution of the entire Classical period to the subsequent development of atheist thought. Of course, agnostic tendencies also grew during this period. Some skeptical schools in the late Classical period held that theological subjects were too complex and human life too short to reach any certain conclusions on these matters. [6]
2. The Middle Ages
In the Classical period, free thought was not yet excessively shackled by social forms of theocracy; even after the Christian church organization was established, it did not suppress such thought. However, in the Middle Ages, as the status of Christianity as the state religion became increasingly secure, free thought inevitably came into conflict with theological orthodoxy. Consequently, we can only see certain tendencies toward atheist thought within heresy, paganism, or pantheism. It was not until the 14th and 15th centuries, when the medieval structures of the Church and royal power began to collapse, that explicit expressions of agnosticism and atheism began to appear. [7]
Nevertheless, during the Middle Ages, as Aristotelian thought was increasingly introduced to Europe, reason gradually broke free from the control of faith and began to explore the natural world independently. Philosophy also began to distance itself from theology to study the empirical world, completely disregarding any claims put forward by faith. [8]
3. The Renaissance (16th–17th Centuries)
By the Renaissance, as interest in the cultural heritage of the Classical period underwent a revival and development, humanity and the world were no longer understood entirely through a religious lens. Human behavior was no longer measured solely by whether it secured salvation from God. Humanity and the world began to be researched and understood as they originally were, and this was done purely for the benefit of humanity itself. [9]
Classical works were likely to cultivate a firm moralist or a keen philosopher, but such a person was not necessarily a good Christian. A large number of works characterized by skepticism and inquiry—such as those by Lucian, Lucretius, Cicero, Pliny, and Plutarch—played a massive role in liberating the populace from the influence of Christianity, displaying tendencies toward agnosticism and atheism. [10]
In addition to the revival of Classical skepticism and atheism, "Machiavellianism" during this period and the conflicts between different Christian denominations—typically exemplified by the conflict between the Roman Catholic Church and the newly established Protestant churches—became important reasons for the widespread dissemination of non-belief in the 16th century. [11]
Someone, speaking of Machiavelli's influence on France, once lamented: "...it [Machiavelli's thought] has deeply infected atheists and those who despise God and all religion; it even elevates those who have no religious faith at all to great heights, calling them 'public officials' in the language of the court. Because they are filled with godlessness and atheism... they have no scruples about anything." [12]
Furthermore, both Catholicism and Protestantism possessed large numbers of groups and followers, each claiming a monopoly on revealed truth. Which one, then, was correct? This religious dispute directly led to the existence of atheists and the continuous development of various phenomena of non-belief at that time. [13]
In addition, empirical science began to rise during this period, using reason as a guide to explore the natural world. Although it contained the possibility of atheism and non-belief, it did not display an obvious anti-religious tendency when it first appeared; rather, it served as a new way for people to know and explain the world outside of theology. It was not until the 17th century that Thomas Hobbes, building on the experimental scientific ideas of Bacon and others, proposed a naturalistic philosophical view that displayed clear atheist connotations. The only things that truly exist in the world are bodies and the motion of bodies; therefore, God as an "incorporeal spiritual substance" cannot possibly exist. The idea of God originally sprang from people's ignorance of natural forces and causes; the idea of God remained popular in these circumstances because it served the function of "ruling over others." [14]
He viewed religion as a tool for maintaining social order: "the secrets of our religion... are like wholesome pills for the sick, which swallowed whole, have the virtue to cure; but chewed, are for the most part cast up again without effect." [15]
Spinoza further pointed out that theologians attempted to make philosophy serve theology so as to make theological dogmas appear "rational," which had a deleterious effect. Since there is no common ground between the two—the former seeks truth, while the latter seeks only obedience and piety; the foundation of the former is nature, while the foundation of the latter is "revelation." He resolutely advocated for the separation of philosophy from theology and denied everything supernatural in the Bible through its analysis. Nature alone is the sole, infinite, and objectively existing "substance." God is identical to nature; to know nature and its laws is to know God. [16] Spinoza's atheist thought carried a certain pantheistic color.
4. The Enlightenment (18th Century)
By this stage, the struggle between reason and religion in the intellectual realm had become very apparent. If "double truth"—the coexistence of the two truths of religion and reason—still existed prior to the 18th century, the Enlightenment brought about the Age of Reason. Openly declared non-belief was visible everywhere, directed not only against Christianity but against all religion. Whether God and the soul existed became a subject of universal debate. People attempted to replace religious explanations of life and the world with reason, nature, and a morality independent of theology. [17]
Skepticism persisted, and Deism [18]—which opposed revelation—was proposed. A vast number of scientific discoveries directly led to the development and prosperity of atheism in the mid-18th century.
Diderot was initially a Deist but soon turned to atheism. He used scientific arguments to explain atheism and was convinced that if the idea of God could be completely eliminated, everything in the world would improve. [19]
The "first person in the Western tradition to unambiguously and publicly identify as an atheist" can be said to be Baron d'Holbach. He believed that nature or the universe consists only of matter and motion; matter itself is in eternal motion, and humans, like matter, are part of nature. He openly indicted religion: it provided a false foundation for morality; it was unscientific, its doctrines running counter to scientific truth; it was the primary pillar of a corrupt social order, using its dogmas about the afterlife to divert people's attention from the evils of the present world. Religion arose from the fear of the unknown and ignorance of natural causes; the roots of morality lie in society, and it should be built upon the sentiment of self-respect. [20]
During this period, the skeptic David Hume proposed his own arguments against theism and argued that all traditional proofs for the existence of God were unverifiable. [21]
Although Kant also criticized the rational basis of theism—for instance, he believed that "pure reason cannot tell us anything about God or about any relationship God might have with the world"—his ultimate goal was to establish religion on a firmer foundation, such as morality, to exempt it from the critique of reason. Therefore, the discourse on theism and morality represented by Kant became a new target for the struggle of many atheists in the following century (the 19th century). [22]
During the Enlightenment, the status of natural science was established, and theological hypotheses, revelations, or miracles were thoroughly demolished. Naturalism and reason became the sole methods for observing the world. Of course, reason was also restricted to the realm of nature, an area that can only be known by employing scientific methods. [23]
5. The Modern Era (19th–20th Centuries)
In the 19th century, just as Kant had attempted to ground theism in moral consciousness, Friedrich Schleiermacher attempted to ground theism in individual religious feeling, confining God to the scope of religious consciousness. [24]
Ludwig Feuerbach critiqued this and developed philosophical anthropology. He argued that religious consciousness is merely the reflection of humanity's highest ideals in the form of a supernatural being, and that these ideals can only be formed by humans themselves. Feuerbach denied God, yet his aim was not to abolish religion but to perfect it. Nevertheless, his doctrine exerted a decisive influence on both Marx and Engels. [48] Marx went even further, stating: "Religion is the self-consciousness and self-feeling of man who has either not yet found himself, or has already lost himself again. ... The struggle against religion is, therefore, indirectly the struggle against that world whose spiritual aroma is religion." [49] It was precisely upon Marx's thoroughgoing atheistic thought that the Marxism later spread throughout the world was formed, and Marxist atheism subsequently became the advanced form of the development of Western atheistic thought.
Another German atheist, Nietzsche, directly asserted that "God is dead"; however, people have not yet given sufficient weight to the chaos and nihilism this fact would cause in the realm of values. He attempted to replace transcendental morality, derived from the will of God and theological teleology, with a naturalistic morality that draws its raison d'être from the human environment. Nietzsche foresaw the profound impact that the collapse of a religious worldview in Western society would have on its moral sphere. [50] By the 20th century, the existentialist Jean-Paul Sartre took atheism as the first premise of his theory—namely, "if God is dead, then everything is permitted." Since God is dead, every individual must provide meaning for their own existence. [51] Subsequently, several other outstanding Western thinkers have proceeded from atheistic premises to propose their own solutions to the problems of Western society, though we shall not delve into them here.
Furthermore, since the 19th century, the scientific critique of religion has grown increasingly robust, and religion—as well as religious experience—has increasingly been explained by people in terms of naturalism. In Britain, Darwin's On the Origin of Species (1859) overturned the traditional Christian assumptions regarding human origins; the theory of natural selection virtually subverted the entirety of theism. Darwin himself, however, was an agnostic [25]. While he was moved by evolution, he was also frustrated by its non-teleological facts, "feeling deeply that the whole subject is too profound for human intellect..." [52] Nonetheless, the proposal of the theory of evolution had an incalculable impact on Western and indeed world history. The curtain rose on the conflict between science and religion from this point—the most typical example being the 1860 debate over human lineage between Thomas Huxley and Bishop Samuel Wilberforce at the British Association for the Advancement of Science. From this, scientific humanism began to spread. A contemporary preacher defined humanism as follows: "[The humanist] believes there is no reason to believe in a supernatural God or an afterlife; he believes that man must rely on his own reason and morality to solve problems rather than seeking supernatural aid; neither supernatural authority nor any other authority should be allowed to obstruct inquiry in any field of thought." [53] The humanist John Stuart Mill argued that there is a moral contradiction in the idea that such a world of suffering was the benevolent creation of a perfectly good and omnipotent God. Toward the 20th century, the humanist Bertrand Russell argued that science is fully capable of—or will eventually—explain all activities of the universe, and we require no other explanations. [54]
Still within the realm of science, the 20th-century psychologist Sigmund Freud inherited the philosophical views of Marx and Nietzsche. He believed that basing morality on religion is unreliable and that people should learn to be independent in the moral sphere just as they are in others. He used naturalistic terms to explain religious experience, maintaining that scientific work is the only path to knowing reality. People who believe in religion feel helpless and afraid before the universe, so they project onto nature the father figure from whom they could obtain comfort since childhood, thereby creating their God. Thus, religion is an illusion; and because it cannot be independently established on the basis of reason and science, it is also an error. [55] Since the 20th century, the development of linguistic philosophy has posed new challenges to theological thought. It no longer focuses on the truth or falsehood of religious statements, but rather on the meaning of religious statements themselves. Religious statements are critiqued as meaningless propositions that should be discarded entirely. Professor of Logic A.J. Ayer said that the agnostic maintains that the existence of God is a possibility for which there are no sufficient grounds either to believe or disbelieve; the atheist maintains that God does not exist, which is at least possible; however, we hold that all statements regarding the nature of God are meaningless, and therefore, we are fundamentally opposed to both agnosticism and atheism. This could be said to be the most intense challenge theology has encountered to date. [56]
From this, it can be seen that naturalistic ways of knowing and understanding the world are attempting to completely exclude theology from the realm of human cognition. Despite this, in the West, the debate between non-belief and theology continues.
II. Historical Insights
The above brief outline traces the developmental trajectory of Western atheistic thought. Reviewing this history allows us to be more discerning and clear regarding the research of Marxist atheism. From this history, we can derive several important insights:
First, the naturalistic philosophical tradition of the classical era can be called the "source of living water" [26] for the development of all atheistic thought. Regardless of how the eras change, its influence has persisted, and in the modern and contemporary period, it manifests as a thoroughgoing naturalism—that is, the methodology of the natural sciences.
Second, atheism is not the invention of any single individual; rather, it is the crystallization of the accumulated collective wisdom of countless people throughout history who held atheistic ideas. In Baron d'Holbach, one can already see the shadows of the critique of religion later performed by Marx. In fact, by Marx’s time, the question of God's existence had already been settled; he essentially inherited the atheistic judgments of his predecessors and applied this thought in a more thoroughgoing way to the realms of society and history, thereby creatively proposing his own doctrine: Marxism.
Third, atheistic thought develops forward in response to the needs of the times. During the Enlightenment, due to the development of science and the sharpening contradictions of feudal society, atheistic thought became more distinct and bold; Holbach, "the first unambiguously self-confessed atheist in the Western tradition," appeared at this time. In the modern era, due to the need to resist feudal forces, Marxism—the most thoroughgoing atheistic thought—emerged in the West. Therefore, in different eras, the manifestations of atheistic thought will not be exactly the same. This reminds us that current research and promotion of Marxist atheism should also consider adapting to the needs of the present era, rather than simply copying history or relying entirely on personal subjective will.
Fourth, the different manifestations of atheism in various eras also remind us that atheism is very rich. Some atheistic thinkers, whether in the classical period or the Enlightenment, carried more or less a tinge of pantheism or deism. Epicurus, for instance, acknowledged the existence of gods but held that they do not concern themselves with human affairs at all, making it unnecessary to pray to them or fear them. Spinoza believed that God is identical to Nature; to know Nature and its laws is to know God. Although we maintain that Marxist atheism is the most thorough, it is undeniable that throughout the history of atheism's development, pantheism and deism—like atheism—functioned as states of non-belief and powerfully resisted mainstream theology. Although they are not identical to atheism and possess certain limitations, they can be considered "close relatives" of atheism. In the West, the independent discipline of atheism is often divided into many schools, such as "Classical Atheism" (i.e., of ancient Greece and Rome), "Deistic" Atheism, the atheism of the "Encyclopedists," Feuerbach’s atheism, Marxist atheism, and so on. [57] Thus, when we conduct research on Marxist atheism today, we cannot ignore the intrinsic connotations of atheism or its rich extrinsic extensions.
Fifth, the development of atheism has always been accompanied by skepticism. Whether in the classical era, the Renaissance, the Enlightenment, or the modern era, this point is very obvious. This spirit of daring to question and ceaselessly explore is a major manifestation of the naturalistic tradition, further promoted in the modern era through science and reason. On the question of theism, the direct result of skepticism is often agnosticism—a very important phenomenon of non-belief. Agnosticism is not synonymous with atheism, but in both Western and Eastern history, its relationship with atheism has been very close. There is a certain tradition of agnosticism within Chinese Confucian thought. Throughout the ages, many non-believers have thought: "Since I have no belief in God and do not care for related matters, I must be an agnostic." However, the famous American atheist Michael Martin found through detailed analysis that many so-called agnostics are likely "positive atheists"—that is, they not only lack belief in God but believe that God does not exist; they simply have not realized they are actually atheists due to certain cognitive misunderstandings. [58]
Sixth, based on the insights of history, our current research into atheism should be conducted and compared within the broad context of non-belief as a whole, linking various rich phenomena of non-belief together for study. Atheistic thought is actually as old as the naturalistic tradition. But it was precisely because of the development of medieval theology that the importance and necessity of atheism became increasingly prominent. Similarly, by investigating and analyzing within the broad scope of non-belief and clarifying its relationship with pantheism, deism, and agnosticism, atheism can be presented more clearly to the world. Only then can the thoroughness and unique advantages of Marxist atheism be revealed.
At the same time, this is a process of helping the masses clarify their own thinking. For Marx, the question of God's existence was already solved; he focused more on the socio-historical realm. China is a socialist country under the guidance of Marxism but has not yet reached a communist society. Although the mainstream of Chinese society promotes atheistic thought, the broad masses of people are not actually very clear about their own atheistic viewpoints. Am I a "positive atheist" who believes God does not exist, a "negative atheist" who merely lacks belief in God, an agnostic, or someone with pantheistic or deistic leanings? The average person is likely to be fuzzy on this. More likely, the seemingly agnostic tradition in Chinese Confucian culture would lead many to consider themselves agnostics, but in fact—according to Michael Martin’s research—they may well be atheists, they just do not know it yet.
Finally, while we have inherited Marx's thoroughgoing atheism, in the West, the debate between non-belief and theism continues, albeit in different forms. Although science and reason have become mainstream concepts in the contemporary world, the long-standing theological tradition in the West still cannot be underestimated. Since the 21st century, the "Four Horsemen" [59] led by the British biologist Richard Dawkins have sparked a wave of "New Atheism" in Euro-American society. Dawkins deeply analyzes the origins of religion and the constraints and deceptions it brings to human thought, considering it an intellectual parasite in human evolutionary history, and advocates for people to resolve to become happy, peaceful, moral, and rational atheists. [60] Although the works of the "Four Horsemen" are written in the language of reason and science, they have topped bestseller lists in Europe and America, exerting a massive influence on readers. The emergence of this trend is due not only to the influence of historical tradition but also to contemporary factors, which we will not further analyze here. [61] Interestingly, this trend of New Atheism has begun to spread among the Chinese public. Since 2012, the popular science website "Scientific Park" (科学公园) has held an annual "Chinese Atheist Forum" to discuss atheism and promote science, explicitly stating its intent to echo this Euro-American trend. Therefore, persisting in the research and promotion of Marxist atheism and maintaining continuous attention to the changes and developments of atheistic thought worldwide is in line with current trends of the times.
III. Conclusion
By briefly reviewing the historical development of Western atheist thought, this article has presented the historical origins of Marxist atheism and elaborated on several insights we might gain from such historical exploration. For today's research on atheism, these insights possess significant guiding importance.
In the first half of the 20th century, atheism was introduced to China alongside ideas of democracy and science. It catered precisely to the urgent needs of Chinese society at that time to oppose imperialism and feudalism. Illustrative examples include the "Non-Christian Student Federation" (非基督教学生同盟) prepared by students in Shanghai and the "Great Anti-Religion Federation" (非宗教大同盟) initiated by students at Peking University. Their shared purpose was specifically to "liberate [the people] from religious shackles and manifest scientific truth" [66]. They launched a nationwide wave of opposition to Christianity and critiques of religion.
However, in contemporary China, the tasks of anti-imperialism and anti-feudalism have long since been completed. For the Communist Party of China, which takes Marxism as its guide, the core of its basic line for governance is centered on economic construction, adhering to the Four Cardinal Principles [29] as the foundation of the state, and implementing reform and opening up as the path to a strong nation. How, then, should Marxist atheism play its proper role in the contemporary era? How can it adapt to the needs of these times? This requires us to clearly grasp the key elements of the historical development and transformation of atheist thought and apply them correspondingly to the present age.
The naturalist tradition of atheism, its manifestation and continuation as collective wisdom, its epochal character, the independence of its connotation and richness of its extension, its skeptical qualities, and its status as a key point that reflects the entire phenomenon of non-belief and even the whole field of belief—these are all key elements of atheist thought that we should grasp deeply. Without exception, they demonstrate the value of engaging in Marxist atheist research today. By expanding our research and promotion of atheism, we can specifically respond to today's "religious fever" [30] phenomenon. By deeply excavating the naturalist tradition and the spirit of reason and science inherent in atheism, we can suppress the current overflow of pseudo-religions, the growth of cults, and the spread of religious extremism. Atheism and religion are two sides of the same coin. Under the current social situation, there is still much to be done in this field.
Even in today’s secularized world, Western research on atheism continues, albeit by changing its form and adjusting its intensity. In the current era, along with the development of science, technology, and the economy, and the extensive exchange of cultures, the world is increasingly becoming a single whole. The Western trend of New Atheism has also affected our country. Therefore, whether from the perspective of the needs of the times or the development of atheist thought itself, conducting research on Marxist atheism in contemporary Chinese society offers great prospects for achievement.
In the view of Marx and Engels, religion is a perverted world-consciousness produced by a perverted world. To fundamentally eliminate religion, one must transform the perverted world that produces it. Therefore, the critique of heaven must be transformed into a critique of earth, and the critique of religion into a critique of law and politics. This transition from "critique of religion" to "critique of politics" represents a major leap in the formation of Marxist atheism. It indicates that Marxist atheism no longer limits itself to theoretical rebuttals of religious theology, but has focused its sights on the social reality that engenders religion, aiming to realize the liberation of humanity through the transformation of the real world.
Marxist atheism also emphasizes the historical and social nature of religion. Religion is not an eternal existence; it is a historical phenomenon that emerges, develops, and disappears alongside the development of human society. At the current stage, the existence of religion has its profound social, cognitive, and psychological roots. Therefore, the struggle against religion cannot rely on simple administrative orders or coercive means, but must depend on the highly developed social productive forces and the continuous progress of science and culture. Only when humanity can consciously control its own social relations and its relationship with nature will the objective foundations of religion truly vanish.
In summary, the historical origins of Marxist atheism are multi-dimensional and profound. It inherited the rationalist tradition of Ancient Greek philosophy, drew upon the critical fruits of the Enlightenment and the Young Hegelians, and importantly, achieved a qualitative leap through the establishment of historical materialism. Marxist atheism is not an isolated ideological fragment, but an organic component of the entire Marxist theoretical system. In the New Era, upholding and developing Marxist atheism requires us to persist in the principle of seeking truth from facts, to uphold the fundamentals and break new ground, and to deeply study the new situations and problems facing religion under the conditions of Chinese-path modernization. We must actively guide religion to adapt to socialist society and contribute to the realization of the Great Rejuvenation of the Chinese Nation.
(Author: Assistant Researcher, Institute of Marxism Studies, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences) Web Editor: Caihong Original Publication: Marxist Forum (Vol. 11) Shandong People's Publishing House December 2015