Cheng Xuejun and Li Xuqing: Basic Patterns and Development Trends of Cult Research in Postgraduate Education
Cults are regarded as heresies within religion and are "malignant tumors" that harm society. The spread and proliferation of cults severely threaten the safety of the people's lives and property, as well as social harmony and stability. The problem of cults has become a worldwide challenge. In recent years, the methods of cult activities have become increasingly concealed, cult phenomena have become increasingly complex, and the struggle between cults and anti-cult efforts has reached a stalemate, entering a new stage. At the 2021 National Conference on Religious Work, General Secretary Xi Jinping emphasized the need to "uphold the direction of the Sinicization of religion in our country, and actively guide religions to adapt to socialist society. We must cultivate a team of religious studies researchers who are firm in their ideological and political stance, persist in the Marxist view of religion, possess excellent academic style, and are adept at innovation, so as to strengthen the construction of the discipline of Marxist religious studies." This pointed the way forward for the study of cult issues in the New Era. Since the 1990s, domestic scholars have conducted extensive research on cult issues. Statistically organizing and performing a quantitative analysis of existing achievements holds important theoretical value and practical significance for implementing the spirit of the National Conference on Religious Work.
I. Research Methods and Sample Selection
(1) Research Methods This paper employs bibliometrics and text analysis. The data analysis items include: author, thesis topic, academic discipline, degree-granting institution, date of degree conferral, supervisor, degree type, and post-graduation mobility. This data was obtained partly from the theses themselves and partly through articles published by the authors after receiving their degrees, such as information regarding post-graduation mobility.
(2) Sample Selection In the early period of the founding of New China, the term huidaomen [1] was generally used domestically to refer to what are called "cults" (xiejiao) today. Since the 1990s, the use of the term "cult" has become increasingly frequent. Based on this, the author conducted a full-field search in the China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI) Dissertations/Theses Database and the Wanfang Data Knowledge Service Platform database using terms such as huidaomen, "cult" (xiejiao), "cultic group" (mobai tuanti), and specific sect names like "FLG" [2] and "Eastern Lightning" (Quannengshen), as well as the names of relevant cult leaders. The search period was set from January 1, 1990, to December 31, 2020. After screening and analysis, and removing duplicates between the two databases and papers unrelated to the "cult theme," a total of 205 valid samples were obtained. These included 32 doctoral dissertations, 121 academic master's theses, and 52 professional master's theses, accounting for 15.6%, 59%, and 25.4% respectively. The year 1990 was chosen as the starting point because no relevant postgraduate theses were found in the databases prior to that year.
II. Data Analysis and Results
In order to understand and master the basic pattern of cult research, the author analyzed the data of postgraduate theses involving cult issues in the CNKI database from 1990 to 2020 across three dimensions: geographical distribution, the status of supervisors and students, and research perspectives. The data reveals that the geographical and institutional distribution of cult research results is somewhat unbalanced. Different research institutions have unique characteristics in their disciplinary setups. Research teams, supervisors, and master-disciple lineages [3] also exhibit certain characteristics, while research perspectives vary.
(1) Geographical Distribution, Institutional Distribution, and Disciplinary Setup The data shows that while the correlation between geographical distribution, training institutions, and academic disciplines of these theses is relatively weak, there is a certain tendency.
1. From the perspective of geographical distribution, Beijing is the city with the highest intensity of research on cult issues. According to the statistics on the number of theses, Beijing leads by a wide margin, accounting for 28% of the total. Shanghai follows at 10%, with Shandong Province ranking third; the fourth through sixth places are roughly equal. Looking at the top ten provinces and municipalities directly under the central government, the number of papers from Beijing is nearly three times that of second-place Shanghai. The number of papers from the top four regions accounts for more than half of the total. This indicates that Beijing is the city where research on cult issues is most active.
Taking ten-year intervals, it is evident that Beijing has consistently maintained its first-place ranking. The trend in the number of theses across almost all provinces and cities is the same: an explosive growth occurred after the 1999 FLG incident, followed by a gradual decline. Between 1990 and 2000, there were only nine theses in total—eight in Beijing and one in Jiangsu Province, with zero in other regions. Between 2001 and 2010, the growth rate of theses in the top ten provinces and cities was 89%. After the 1999 FLG incident, and especially with the establishment of the China Anti-Cult Association [4] on November 13, 2000, academic research on cult issues received significant attention. Between 2011 and 2020, the number of theses in the top ten provinces and cities decreased by 25%. The 1999 FLG incident triggered a sharp increase in the number of postgraduate theses related to cult themes; after this incident was brought under control, the number of papers declined significantly. This indicates that, on the one hand, academic research in postgraduate training responds rapidly to current events and hot topics, and on the other hand, the volume of postgraduate theses is highly correlated with the national situation and public opinion.
2. From the perspective of training institutions, Beijing has the largest number. Based on the statistics from 1990 to 2020, research on cult issues is currently conducted at 86 training institutions. The top 10 institutions account for about 40% of the theses, the top 20 for about 60%, and the top 30 for about 70%. The top 10 institutions include: Renmin University of China, Shandong University, People’s Public Security University of China, Wuhan University, Shanghai Normal University, Northeast Normal University, Tsinghua University, Jilin University, Fudan University, and the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences (CASS). Among these, four are in Beijing, two in Shanghai, two in Jilin Province, one in Shandong Province, and one in湖北 Province. From the institutional dimension, Beijing has the largest number of organizations studying cult issues, indicating that Beijing has formed a certain scale in the distribution of research power on this subject.
From a temporal perspective, the status of cult research varies across institutions. Renmin University of China, Peking University, CASS, and Nanjing University were the earliest institutions to conduct research on cult issues. In the 1990s, the number of theses at Renmin University of China was six times that of the other three combined. After entering the 21st century, 82 training institutions successively joined the ranks of cult research. In the first decade of the 21st century, Renmin University of China, Wuhan University, Shandong University, Jilin University, Nanjing University, Shanghai Normal University, CASS, and the China University of Political Science and Law became the primary institutions conducting cult research. Between 2011 and 2020, institutions more active in this field included the People’s Public Security University of China, Shandong University, Wuhan University, Tsinghua University, Inner Mongolia University, and Shanxi University.
3. From the perspective of academic disciplines, research is mainly concentrated in the humanities and social sciences. Statistics from 1990 to 2020 show that the disciplines most involved in cult research include: Modern and Contemporary Chinese History, Master of Laws (J.M.), Master of Public Administration (MPA), Criminal Law, Ancient Chinese History, Sociology, Religious Studies, and Ideological and Political Education. To some extent, this reflects the disciplinary distribution of cult research. According to the Catalog of Disciplines for Degree Conferral and Talent Cultivation and the Catalog of Disciplines and Majors for Conferring Doctoral and Master's Degrees and Cultivating Postgraduates (2008) issued by the Academic Degrees Committee of the State Council, majors such as Modern and Contemporary Chinese History, Ancient Chinese History, and Specialized History are categorized under the first-level discipline of History; Religious Studies is under Philosophy; and Ideological and Political Education is under Marxist Theory. The first-level disciplines involved in cult research include History, Law, Philosophy, Sociology, Marxist Philosophy, Political Science, Public Security Studies, Ethnology, Education, and Psychology. Statistical analysis shows that History and Law have the highest proportions, followed by Philosophy and Marxist Theory, which is generally consistent with the top ten majors.
Analyzing the top 10 institutions specifically, each institution’s research focus has its own characteristics. At Renmin University of China, disciplines involved include History, Political Science, Religious Studies, Sociology, and Ideological and Political Education; History accounts for 79%, and doctoral dissertations are 1.2 times more numerous than master's theses. At Shandong University, the disciplines are History, Law (J.M.), and Sociology; Law accounts for half, History for 40%, and master's theses for 90%. At the People’s Public Security University of China, the disciplines are Public Security Studies and Master of Policing; Public Security Studies is the leading discipline, primarily consisting of master's theses. At Wuhan University, the disciplines of Law, Religious Studies, and History show no significant difference in research strength. At Shanghai Normal University, the disciplines are History and Literature, with History accounting for 87.5%. At Jilin University, the only discipline is Law; it was the earliest institution to study cult offenses from a legal perspective. At Tsinghua University, research is conducted in Public Administration, Ideological and Political Education, and Philosophy of Science and Technology, accounting for 60%, 15%, and 15% respectively. This demonstrates that different institutions involve different disciplines, highlighting the multi-disciplinary nature of cult research.
Temporally, the earliest discipline to focus on cult research was History, even before the FLG incident. The involvement of other disciplines occurred after the "FLG" incident, with Psychology being the last to focus on the topic, accounting for only 0.5% of the theses.
Over time, while the geographical distribution and number of institutions conducting cult research continued to grow after an initial rapid increase, the proportion of theses gradually declined after reaching its peak. This suggests that while more regions and institutions are paying attention to cult issues, research strength and output have become more fragmented.
(2) Research Teams, Supervisors, and Master-Disciple Lineages The data shows that the characteristics of supervisor-student relationships in these theses vary. Generally, they can be analyzed through three factors: research teams, supervisors, and master-disciple lineages.
1. From the perspective of research teams, a stable workforce has not yet been formed. Regarding research teams, one can look at the number of teachers in the same discipline at a single institution who supervise students' theses. According to statistics, the proportion of such teams remaining continuous over the past 30-plus years across 86 institutions is only about 3.5%. It is evident that research teams are rarely formed in institutions conducting cult research; isolated or occasional supervision of students is the norm. Sample data shows that several universities, such as Renmin University of China, Shandong University, Wuhan University, and Jilin University, once formed relatively stable research teams, but the duration of their focus varied. Renmin University of China lasted from 1990 to 2013, Shandong University from 2007 to 2014, and Wuhan University from 2002 to 2018 (with several years of interruption). Jilin University lasted from 2001 to 2006, after which no further theses appeared. The People’s Public Security University of China has had postgraduate theses every year from 2017 to the present. These data suggest that the already sparse research workforce is even decreasing over time. In recent years, the only truly active research team is at the People’s Public Security University of China; further investigation reveals this is because the university began recruiting postgraduates specifically in the direction of cult studies in 2012.
2. From the perspective of supervisors, the situation can generally be divided into three categories.
Statistical data from 1990 to 2020 shows a total of 183 supervisors. These can be divided into three categories: (1) Supervisors who guided two or more theses, accounting for 8% of the total. Among them, one supervisor guided a maximum of 10 theses, including 7 doctoral dissertations and 3 master's theses. Of these 7 doctoral graduates, 4 entered universities or research institutes, and 3 subsequently became supervisors themselves, guiding master's theses on cult issues, thereby forming a certain lineage of mentorship [5]. Another supervisor consecutively guided 4 doctoral students in conducting in-depth research on theoretical issues regarding cults. One supervisor guided the same student through both master's and doctoral theses, both of which focused on cult issues. The theses guided by this 8% of supervisors account for 22.4% of the total. (2) Theses with two supervisors, accounting for 10% of the total supervisors and 4.9% of the total papers. Among these dual-supervisor papers, 90% indicate joint cultivation with an external supervisor, with majors in Law and Public Administration. (3) Supervisors who guided only one thesis, accounting for 82% of the total. The trends for these three categories have evolved over time.
These data indicate that a small minority of supervisors (8%) treat cult-related research as a sustained academic interest, though this number has clearly decreased over time. The instance of dual supervisors has increased significantly alongside changes in the structure of China's graduate cultivation. For the vast majority of supervisors (92%), cults and their attendant phenomena fall only into the category of occasional interest.
3. From the Perspective of Mentorship Lineage, Two Generations Predominate
"Mentorship lineage" [5] in this study refers to a situation where the author of a thesis, after graduation, serves as a supervisor to guide graduate students in the study of cult issues. From this perspective, potential lineages can only be formed by thesis authors who enter universities or research institutes after graduation. Mentorship lineage can be examined through information regarding the career paths of thesis authors. Statistical analysis of author mobility shows a total of 204 authors. Within the timeframe of this study, 9.3% of authors entered universities and research institutes after graduation, but only 2% became supervisors themselves, guiding graduate students to produce theses on cult issues. This formed a three-generation lineage. The remaining mentorship lineages consist of only two generations.
The underlying reason is directly related to student career mobility. Due to the difficulty of obtaining accurate mobility information for all graduates, a specific analysis of the 32 doctoral authors follows: By discipline, History had the highest number (18), followed by Law (9) and Philosophy (5). After graduation, 6 of these 32 doctors had unknown destinations, while 26 had definite work units. Of these 26, 6 worked in government (4 in History, 2 in Law), accounting for 18.8% of the total doctoral graduates; they have all developed into management cadres [6] for the state in the fields of politics, law, and religion. There were 15 university teachers, 3 in research institutes, and 2 in publishing houses—since the publishing houses are affiliated with universities and research institutes, the number of people capable of continuing to guide students as supervisors is 20, or 62.5% of the total doctoral graduates. Among them, 11 were in History, 6 in Law, and 3 in Philosophy. Within this group, 4 have guided students in continued research on cult issues, accounting for 12.5% of the total doctoral graduates. Three were in History and one was in Law. The three History supervisors graduated in 1999, 2001, and 2002 respectively; they guided 6 students between 2005 and 2013, after which there were no more students. The other supervisor graduated with a doctorate in Law in 2006 and guided a student thesis in 2020 at the People's Public Security University of China. From this data, student career mobility—moving into new professions and roles—is the primary reason for the interruption of mentorship lineages in cult research.
(III) Research Perspectives
Statistical data shows that the research perspectives of graduate theses involve many aspects of cult studies, including: (1) History of secret societies [7] during the Ming and Qing periods (which some scholars also call "folk religion" or "secret religion") and research on "Hui-Dao-Men" [8] around the time of the founding of the PRC (hereafter Perspective 1); (2) Research on specific Chinese secret folk societies, FLG [9], Church of Almighty God, and Association of Disciples, etc. (hereafter Perspective 2); (3) Legal and policy research on the prevention and handling of cult crimes (hereafter Perspective 3); (4) Theoretical research on cults, involving the definition and characteristics of cults, the roots of their survival and operational mechanisms, their harms, and other research (hereafter Perspective 4); (5) Research on the relationship between overseas primary new religions and contemporary Chinese cults (hereafter Perspective 5).
In terms of degree types, data within the statistical period shows that between 1990 and 2000, the number of doctoral dissertations on cult themes was far higher than that of academic master's (Xueshuo) theses. During this period, professional master's (Zhuanshuo) theses were zero. Between 2001 and 2010, the volume of all three types of theses increased significantly, with academic master's theses seeing the largest increase. Between 2011 and 2020, both doctoral dissertations and academic master's theses decreased, while professional master's theses continued to rise sharply. The reason for this phenomenon lies in the structural adjustment of China's graduate education; professional degrees entered a period of major development after 2005, and full-time professional degree graduate recruitment began in 2009. Consequently, professional degree theses grew linearly. Specific changes in the research perspectives of the three types of theses over different periods are as follows:
For doctoral dissertations, between 1990 and 2000, attention to Perspectives 1 and 2 was higher than Perspective 4, while Perspectives 3 and 5 were not addressed. Between 2001 and 2010, the focus expanded from 3 perspectives to 4, with Perspective 5 still receiving no attention. The proportion of theses for each perspective increased, with Perspective 1 seeing the largest jump and becoming the most focused-upon area. Between 2011 and 2020, the perspectives covered increased to 5, with Perspective 5 receiving attention for the first time. The proportion of theses for Perspectives 1 through 4 all declined, with Perspective 1 showing the largest drop. During this period, Perspectives 2 and 4 became the most focused-upon. The primary reasons for this are:
The themes involved in doctoral dissertations are closely related to social current events and changes in their intensity, and even more closely related to the disciplines and supervisors involved. Across the three periods: In 1990–2000, doctoral dissertations belonged to the disciplines of History and Philosophy of Science and Technology. History theses were four times more numerous than those in Philosophy of Science and Technology; History tended toward Perspectives 1 and 2, while Philosophy of Science and Technology favored Perspective 4. In 2001–2010, doctoral dissertations belonged to History, Religious Studies, Law, and Sociology. The ratio of theses among these four was 10:3:2:1. History perspectives were mostly Perspective 1 (six times more than Perspective 2), Religious Studies also focused on Perspectives 1 and 2, and Sociology utilized Perspective 4. This caused Perspective 1 to have the largest increase in this period. In 2011–2020, doctoral dissertations spanned seven disciplines: History, Religious Studies, Law, Sociology, Political Science, Public Security Studies, and Marxist Theory. The reason for the sharp decline in Perspective 1 doctoral dissertations was the successive retirement of two history doctoral supervisors who had long engaged in the study of secret societies. From this period onward, doctoral perspectives shifted more toward theoretical studies of cults and comparative studies between Chinese and foreign cults.
For academic master's (Xueshuo) theses, in the 1990–2000 period, focus was only on Perspective 2 and its proportion was low. In 2001–2010, focus expanded from 1 to 5 perspectives, with Perspective 2 being the most frequent. In 2011–2020, interest in Perspective 4 increased slightly, while the proportions for the other three perspectives declined significantly; comparatively, Perspective 2 remained the most focused-upon. The main reason for this was the 1999 FLG incident, which led to a surge in the second statistical period. After this incident was brought under control, attention to cult issues gradually waned. Perspective 4 did not decline accordingly, indicating that as time passed, more importance was placed on in-depth theoretical research.
For professional master's (Zhuanshuo) theses, focus on cult issues began in the 2001–2010 period, with Perspective 3 seeing the largest growth (mainly Juris Master students). Perspectives 1 and 5 received no attention, and 2 and 4 very little. In 2011–2020, with the expansion of professional degree recruitment, attention to Perspectives 1, 2, and 4 all increased significantly, though Perspective 5 still received no attention. The evolution of research perspectives in professional master's theses over time is highly correlated with the structural adjustment of China's graduate education.
III. Summary and Recommendations
(I) Analysis and Summary
Based on the above data analysis, the current study of cult issues in graduate cultivation exhibits the following characteristics and trends:
1. Beijing and Shanghai remain the centers for cultivating high-level talent in cult research. Based on current statistics, 86 institutions are conducting graduate cultivation in cult research. While the number of institutions is growing, the primary research strength is concentrated in a few. Among the 86 institutions, the top 20 account for approximately 60% of all theses. Regionally, Beijing and Shanghai alone account for 38%, remaining the centers of cult research. Between these two, Beijing possesses a far stronger research force than Shanghai, with a thesis volume nearly three times as large. Beijing not only dominates in total volume but also leads the rankings of institutions with the highest number of theses. Over time, Beijing shows a trend of continuous expansion compared to Shanghai.
2. People's Public Security University of China is gradually becoming the most important institution for cult research. Statistics show that Renmin University of China was the earliest to focus on this area with a certain scale of research, but its team gradually shrank over time, eventually producing zero theses after 2013. Shandong University was a major cultivation institution between 2001 and 2014, but due to the mobility of its research team, it disappeared from the 2015–2020 period. In contrast, the People's Public Security University of China only rose to prominence in 2017. Its proportion of theses has increased significantly, jumping to first in the institutional rankings during that period. Trends show that compared to Renmin University and Shandong University, the People's Public Security University of China is on a continuous upward trajectory.
3. Law is gradually becoming the dominant major for cult research in graduate cultivation. The disciplines conducting cult research mainly include Philosophy, Law, History, Management, Literature, and Education, with Law and History being the most important. Regarding professional settings, Beijing and Shanghai have higher proportions of these majors than the national average. Looking at the attention paid to cult issues in doctoral, academic master's, and professional master's theses, the proportion of Law theses is constantly climbing, indicating an increasing trend of Law dominating the disciplinary landscape of cult research.
4. The mentorship lineage in cult research is overly simplistic. Data shows that mentorship lineages are primarily two generations. Such a lineage is too simple and is detrimental to the in-depth development of cult research. Mentorship lineage is an accelerator for disseminating scientific knowledge, inheriting academic thought, optimizing disciplinary education, and promoting innovation; it is a vital driving force for the generation and development of "schools of thought." Simple mentorship lineages make it difficult to form a specific school, and the continuity of the discipline is hard to maintain. Only when a discipline possesses continuity, inheritance, and innovation can it gradually construct a complete disciplinary system and generate academic influence. Therefore, to promote the institutionalization, systematization, and disciplinarization of this research field and achieve continuous innovation, senior scholars with both knowledge and experience are needed to cultivate numerous graduates, some of whom will in turn cultivate further cohorts. Only through this transmission from generation to generation can a stable research force be formed.
(II) Reflections and Recommendations
Combatting cults requires high-level talent, and graduate education is the primary path for cultivating such talent. Promoting research on cult issues in graduate cultivation in the New Era requires efforts in the following areas:
1. Attach great importance to research on cult issues
General Secretary Xi Jinping has pointed out that "religious work is a global and strategic undertaking that concerns the ruling future and destiny of the Party." Cults [10] often manifest in the guise of religion, draping themselves in a cloak of legitimacy to deceive the masses and evade legal sanctions. Strengthening the study of cult issues within the process of postgraduate cultivation helps university faculty and students recognize the essence and hazards of cults—which are "anti-science, anti-human, anti-society, and anti-government"—thereby enhancing anti-cult awareness and improving the ability to identify, prevent, and resist cults so as to remain far removed from them. Further intensifying the study of cult issues is not only a requirement for lifting cult governance capacities and promoting social harmony and stability, but also a requirement for advancing the modernization of the national governance system and governance capacity. The state could set up special projects reliant on universities and research institutes to conduct small-scale postgraduate cultivation, assigning fixed annual quotas for recruiting students in this field without occupying existing quotas, with the requirement that these students work in professionally relevant units upon graduation. During the cultivation process, researchers should employ internationally recognized perspectives and methods to study phenomena unique to China in the field of cults, engaging in academic exchange with the international community to promote understanding of China's cult issues within global academia.
Continuously Strengthening the Research Force for Cult Issues On one hand, it is necessary to strengthen the construction of the supervisor teams. The supervisor is the primary person responsible for postgraduate cultivation, shouldering the noble mission of nurturing high-level innovative talent. To strengthen the study of cult issues, we must first build a high-level, high-quality team of supervisors, specifically cultivating professional talent in cult research. Only when supervisors possess a certain level of professional competence can they better guide postgraduates in conducting research on cult issues. On the other hand, at the national level, sufficient policy and funding support should be granted to universities and research institutes involved in this field to ensure the sustainable development of the research teams. Universities and research institutes should provide a favorable scientific research environment for cult studies, offering platforms for these teams to communicate and collaborate—such as organizing and participating in international academic conferences, editing book series, and establishing academic journals—to continually bolster the strength of cult research.
Strengthening Disciplinary Construction and Interdisciplinary Integration The reasons for the emergence and spread of cults are complex; economic, cultural, and social factors are interwoven, as are subjective and objective factors, all influencing and interacting with one another. Governing cults is a systematic project that cannot be completed by a single department in isolation; it requires multi-party coordination, collaborative effort, and a multi-pronged approach. Researching cult issues similarly requires the establishment of a collaborative network to strengthen disciplinary construction and interdisciplinary integration. This is because research in the field of cults involves professional knowledge from many areas and requires the concerted cooperation of professionals across multiple fields. Currently, the disciplines engaged in this research are relatively scattered, a situation with both pros and cons. On one hand, the participation of different disciplines has expanded the scope of cult research; on the other hand, it has not yet resulted in interdisciplinary integration, nor has it formed a comprehensive core research area with shared focus. Therefore, through top-level design, a collaborative network involving different research institutions and multiple disciplines should be constructed. For postgraduate cultivation, relatively stable and unified foundational courses should be offered across different disciplines, along with common courses that possess both disciplinary characteristics and a shared foundation. This will form a scientific, complete, and rational educational cultivation system that serves disciplinary construction and interdisciplinary integration.
Web Editor: Tongxin Source: Science and Atheism, Issue 2, 2022