Qi Fujuan: An Analysis of the Cultural and Intellectual Resources of Chinese Culture in the Sinicization of Religion
I. At the 2015 Central United Front Work Conference, General Secretary Xi Jinping pointed out: "To actively guide religion to adapt to socialist society, we must persist in the direction of Sinicization." At the 2016 National Conference on Religious Affairs, he proposed the "Theory of Religious Affairs with Chinese Characteristics" and emphasized the need to handle religion with an attitude of "guidance" (导). In 2020, at the Third Central Symposium on Xinjiang Work, he further proposed the Party's Strategy for Governing Xinjiang in the New Era, with eight "persistences"—including "persisting in the direction of Sinicizing our country's religions"—as its core content, thereby clarifying the trajectory for religious Sinicization.
In previous years, the growth and spread of religious extremist thought inflicted great damage upon ethnic unity and social stability in Xinjiang. This was particularly true in southern Xinjiang, where there is a large population of Muslims. The requirement to "persist in the direction of Sinicizing Islam in Xinjiang to achieve the healthy development of religion" grasps the key point and subject matter of social stability and long-term stability. Persisting in the direction of Sinicizing our country's religions has become the fundamental hue of the Party's religious policy in the New Era and the "key link" [1] for conducting religious work effectively.
To implement the spirit of these speeches completely and accurately—and in view of the fact that religion is a cultural phenomenon possessed of inherent complexity and sensitivity—it is necessary to seek rich intellectual resources and reference paths from fine traditional Chinese culture. We must use Chinese culture to "soak" or permeate religion, guiding it to follow the historical logic of religious Sinicization. This involves taking obedience to and service of the mainstream social ideology as a religious social responsibility and a goal of religious cultivation. In particular, we must "use core socialist values to lead and educate religious personages and believers, carry forward the fine traditions of the Chinese nation, and guide the masses of believers with concepts such as unity, progress, peace, and tolerance. We should support all religions in maintaining their basic beliefs, core teachings, and ritual systems while deeply excavating contents within their teachings and canons that are conducive to social harmony, temporal progress, and healthy civilization. Interpretations of religious canons and doctrines must be made that meet the requirements of contemporary China's development and progress and align with fine traditional Chinese culture."
II. The intellectual resources for persisting in the direction of religious Sinicization contained within Chinese culture are found everywhere across the vast sea of historical classics. Below are a few selected examples, offered in the hope that "a single falling leaf reveals the coming of autumn" [2]—that the great may be seen through the small.
1. Ideas such as "harmony without uniformity," "education for all without discrimination," and "synthesis and adaptation" in Chinese culture.
The propositions of "harmony without uniformity" [3] (he er bu tong), "education for all without discrimination" [4] (you jiao wu lei), and "synthesis and adaptation" (hui he bian tong) make Chinese culture extremely enlightened and magnanimous. It exhibits strong inclusivity toward diverse cultures, showing clearly that it rejects neither the folk beliefs of different internal regions and groups nor religions originating from other civilizations. It has accommodated various foreign religions and sects, including Zoroastrianism, Manichaeism, Buddhism, Nestorian Christianity, and Islam.
Sinicized culture nourishes religion through concepts like "harmony without uniformity" and "ten thousand virtues returning to the same end" (wan shan tong gui), adjusting the relationships between religions. The results and harvests are as Emperor Gaozu of Tang, Li Yuan, stated: "Though the three teachings [5] differ, they return to the same principle of goodness"; or as the Qing dynasty monk Zuoyuan Chaoming wrote in the Record of the Myriad Dharmas Returning to the Mind: "The gates of entry are different, but the source of return is not two." China’s Confucianism, Daoism, and Buddhism all reflect varying degrees of inclusivity and reconciliation in their theories, weakening the exclusive characteristics of religion and effectively mitigating friction, conflict, and contradictions between different faiths.
The successful results of this cultivation are also seen in how foreign religions like Zoroastrianism, Manichaeism, Buddhism, Nestorianism, and Islam have continuously adapted to and renewed themselves within Chinese culture. As time has passed, the degree of their Sinicization has deepened. The "Tablet of the Three Sages" in the Shaolin Temple at Mount Song, the Caotang Temple in Xi'an, and the Changchun Temple in Wuhan serve as the best evidence that "the three teachings are one body and the nine schools of thought share one source; the hundred schools share one logic, and the myriad dharmas share one gate."
The concept of "education for all without discrimination" treats different ancestral, blood, linguistic, and cultural groups equally, significantly diluting differences in the cultural sphere. This differs from other civilizations that emphasize physical, linguistic, or religious differences when dinstinguishing between groups for education. "Synthesis and adaptation" is a major characteristic of Chinese culture: "All things under heaven return to the same point via different paths; they reach the same result through a hundred different worries." Though the Hundred Schools of Thought [6] started from different premises, they learned from one another. The Lüshi Chunqiu [7] provides ample evidence of this, primarily using Confucian and Daoist doctrines while also incorporating Legalist, Mohist, School of Names, Agriculturalist, and Yin-Yang schools. The Huainanzi [8] contains both the Daoist idea of "non-action" (wu wei) and the Confucian and Mohist descriptions of taking the world as one's responsibility and working tirelessly.
Naturally, foreign religions in history often proactively adjusted their posture to undergo Sinicized transformation, striving to fuse religious doctrine with Chinese culture. The depth of Buddhism's integration is evident, and Christianity also sought to interpret its doctrines as a value system entirely consistent with Confucian principles. During the Ming and Qing dynasties, "Muslim scholars utilized concepts, propositions, and theories from traditional Chinese thought to elucidate Islamic doctrines and ideas. The creation of a unique theoretical system integrating Islam, Confucianism, Buddhism, and Daoism is another exemplar of the fusion of thought across religious and cultural systems in human civilization." Generally speaking, "after Islam entered China, it underwent a process of self-adjustment through collision, conflict, and fusion with traditional Chinese culture, ethics, and philosophy, forming a Sinicized Islam." Since Islamic culture stepped into the fertile soil of Chinese civilization, its selective Sinicized transformation has changed neither the essential traits and direction of Chinese civilization nor the objective fact that it is a part of Chinese culture.
After the founding of New China, the Muslim masses, under the leadership of the Party and government, actively participated in the great practice of socialist construction. The dissemination and development of its institutional systems reflected an adaptability to the magnificent Chinese culture. This Sinicized transformation made the development of Islamic culture possible. The theoretical systems of works like The Correct Explanation of the True Religion (Zhengjiao Zhenquan), The Philosophy of Arabia (Tianfang Xingli), The Essentials of the Four Classics (Sidian Yaohui), and The Great Ultimate Return (Dahua Zonggui) highly summarize the interactive and fusuionary relationship between Islamic thought and traditional Chinese philosophy. The views of "supplementing Confucianism with Islam" and "interpreting Islam through Confucianism" prove that the subject of traditional Chinese culture is not merely "Confucianism, Buddhism, and Daoism," but has the potential to encompass Sinicized Islam.
Particularly in the southern Xinjiang region, only by incorporating Islamic civilization into traditional Chinese culture through a historical lens—thereby providing historical and cultural self-awareness for today's insistence on the direction of religious Sinicization—can we fundamentally eliminate all "wishful thinking" on the part of reactionary forces at home and abroad. Buddhism's integration with Chinese culture is so deep that it can be described as a completely Sinicized religion. Some monks used the phrase "everyone can become a Yao or Shun" [9] to explain Buddha-nature, and Buddhist sutras specifically discussing filial piety appeared, such as the Sutra on the Profound Kindness of Parents. Some monks compiled the Chan code Pure Rules of Baizhang (Baizhang Qinggui) using loyalty and filial piety as content and clan organization as a form. This secularized several Buddhist sects, making them consciously obey and serve political and social stability and harmony, following the path of Sinicization.
2. Concepts such as "uprightness and peace," "impartiality," and non-extremism in Chinese culture.
These concepts provided the vital guarantee for our ancestors to create the brilliant, uninterrupted Chinese civilization. They are among the precious spiritual treasures left to posterity, having played important roles in Chinese history in suppressing tyranny, curbing religious heresy and fanaticism, and stabilizing social order. Concepts like "uprightness and peace" (zhong zheng ping he) and "impartiality" (bu pian bu yi) have, through thousands of years of sedimentation, become principles for how people conduct themselves.
Regarding religion, the preaching of scriptures and the transmission of the Way should involve a sense of propriety, being impartial in fulfilling the orthodox path of religion and not exceeding normal religious practice. If one deviates from the track of "uprightness" and "impartiality," religion will veer away from the direction of Sinicization, leading to a deficiency in righteous spirit and a prevalence of evil influences, endangering social stability and long-term stability. How can we ensure religion remains "upright," "impartial," and non-extremist? Confucius's experience, as recorded by Zi Si in the Doctrine of the Mean during the Warring States period, was: "Hold the two extremes and employ the mean for the people" (zhi qi liang duan, yong qi zhong yu min). This means grasping the two extremes of a matter (good and bad) and applying an impartial, non-extremist approach to the people, rather than using extreme methods like war or violence. Later generations simplified this to "holding the two ends and using the middle" (zhi liang yong zhong). Regarding the function of the "Mean" (zhong), although the Doctrine of the Mean uses only the word "harmony" (he) to express it, it speaks to the laws of the universe and nature, the norms of social life, and rational standards.
Chinese culture provided fertile soil for the survival and development of foreign religions, and on this soil, it resolutely rejects the "religionization" of China [10] and religious extremism. By persisting in the direction of Sinicizing religious development, impartially fulfilling the orthodox path of religion, maintaining the bottom line of not spreading heresy to the public, and deeply excavating contents within religious rules conducive to social harmony and progress, religion will continue to move forward toward Sinicization. This includes making interpretations of religious canons that meet the requirements of China's development in the New Era and aligning them with fine traditional Chinese culture, using concepts like unity, progress, peace, and tolerance to guide believers. The scholar Yu Qiuyu remarked that Chinese people, deeply influenced by Chinese culture and especially Confucianism, possess three character traits: they "do not argue," "do not go on distant expeditions," and are "not extremist." Fine traditional Chinese culture can cultivate a non-extremist character; the resources for this are abundant and require deep excavation.
3. The spirit of religious patriotism and national protection, such as "the state as primary, religion as subordinate" and "assisting governance through religion."
Loving and protecting the country is a fine tradition and sentiment that religion in Chinese culture has possessed since ancient times. This is evidenced not only in numerous classics but also in the fact that many religious temples are named "National Protection Temple" (Huguo si) and scriptures are titled with "National Protection." Furthermore, religious precepts include "do not be a traitor to the state, do not slander the sovereign, do not evade state taxes, and do not violate state systems." Typical examples of religion needing to be patriotic and auxiliary to governance include the "Empress Wu's patronage of Buddhism" and "Emperor Wuzong’s proscription of Buddhism" during the Tang Dynasty. "Patronage" was for "assisting governance through religion," while the "proscription" was to prevent religion from developing from "extreme prosperity" into "extremism" that would disrupt governance. Both reflect the patriotic spirit that the religious circles should carry forward.
Emperor Xuanzong of Tang (Li Longji) identified the educational function of religious morality as a supplement to his politics, personally writing commentaries on the Diamond Sutra, the Classic of Filial Piety, and the Dao De Jing. During his reign, the ideology of "three teachings jointly assisting the King's transformation" took shape; religion clearly became a tool for maintaining dynastic rule and a moral pillar of social stability. The Kangxi, Yongzheng, and Qianlong emperors of the Qing dynasty likewise placed great importance on studying Buddhist doctrines and rules to ensure they obeyed and served the political needs of Qing rule.
It was precisely because different historical dynasties advocated and practiced a state-religion relationship of "the state as primary, religion as subordinate" (zheng zhu jiao cong) and "assisting governance through religion" (yi jiao fu zheng)—especially since "the systems and religious policies of emperors and the court exerted an external constraint on the beliefs of different religious ideologies"—that religions whose personal desires expanded and affected imperial power and law were not left to their own devices. For instance, although Emperor Taizong gave Xuanzang exceptional courtesy, he resolutely refused Xuanzang’s request for the "right to punish within the religion" for monks who did not follow secular law. Furthermore, the religious world understood that "without relying on the sovereign, it is difficult to establish religious affairs," and was able to find its proper place within the state and maintain a proper mindset toward the nation. This fostered the subordinate and service-oriented nature of our country's religions toward political power.
Yang Shengmin, honorary president of the Chinese Anthropological Society, once pointed out: "Administrative power and political rights have always been higher than religious power; this is a tradition in China." "Repaying the debt to the land" and "making the land abundant and happy without enemies" are important ways Buddhism shows gratitude to the nation. Other Sinicized religions like Zoroastrianism, Manichaeism, Nestorianism, and Islam, under the influence of the patriotic spirit of Chinese culture, have also strived to take obedience to and service of the mainstream social ideology as their social responsibility and the aim of religious cultivation. Under the influence of this patriotic spirit, in addition to purifying hearts, maintaining long-term stability, and serving the politics of the time, various religions actively took up the mission of cultural exchange between the ancient Western Regions and the Central Plains, assisting the state and serving the politics, economy, society, and people's livelihoods of the dynasty. In this process, Sinicized religions earned a good environment for their own survival and development.
4. The "remote-deism" (远神论) thought in Chinese culture.
The value sources of Western and Chinese cultural traditions are different. The value source of the Western tradition is a supernatural God, whereas the value source of the Chinese tradition, including Confucianism, is "Heaven, Earth, and Conscience" (tian di liang xin). The various schools of thought represented by Confucianism generally stood on an atheist position...
The "distant-spirit theory" [11] primarily encompasses viewpoints such as "while you do not know life, how can you know about death?", "while you are not able to serve men, how can you serve their spirits?", and "respect ghosts and spirits, but keep them at a distance." The position of subsequent orthodox Confucian scholars generally avoided superstition regarding ghosts and spirits; Confucian culture believes in neither deities nor an afterlife. Instead, it is a secular culture centered on internal moral cultivation and external ritual education—cultivating the person as its core content—aiming to "cultivate the self, regulate the family, govern the state, and bring peace to the world" [12]. Overall, the Chinese culture represented by Confucianism actively educates and guides people to handle the human affairs of this present life well, placing great emphasis on self-cultivation and the subjectivity, independence, agency, and practical nature of the human being. The Great Learning (Dàxué) explicitly tells people that "the way of great learning lies in manifesting illustrious virtue," [13] making it clear that the fundamental factor determining a person’s destiny is their own moral conduct, rather than an external "Mandate of Heaven."
In over 5,000 years of Chinese culture, works on the history of Chinese philosophy and thought have devoted significant space to the discussion of Chinese atheist thought. Around the 1990s, based on the needs of the struggle against superstition and cults, China's research into atheism produced a large number of scholarly achievements. Examples include Wang Yousan's Outline History of Chinese Atheism, Li Shiju's Research on Scientific Atheism, Zhou Hong's Research on Scientific Atheism Education, and Li Jiansheng's Course in Scientific Atheism. Additionally, the series of readers on scientific atheism for university, middle school, and elementary school students edited by Li Shiju and Yuan Guiren further promoted research into atheism in our country. The History of Mongolian Atheism represents a fruitful achievement in both Mongolian studies and Chinese atheist research; it examines the rich and diverse atheist thoughts contained within the cultural history of various ethnic groups, vividly demonstrating the origins, formation, evolution, and social functions of atheist thought. This carries great practical significance for guiding religion to follow the path of Sinicization.
5. Moral concepts in Chinese culture: "Do not do unto others what you would not have them do unto you," "extending oneself to others," and "tolerance is a virtue"
The phrases "do not do unto others what you would not have them do unto you" [14] and "extending oneself to others" [15] originate from the "Wei Ling Gong" chapter of the Analects, while "capacity to contain is greatness (tolerance is a virtue)" [16] is an important Daoist proposition. Their core meanings involve inclusiveness and a conciliatory understanding. As moral concepts, they emphasize the principles people should follow when handling affairs or relationships, and these can be expanded to manage relations between states, ethnic groups, religions, and cultures. In 1988, at the closing ceremony of a Nobel Laureates' conference in Paris, Dr. Hannes Alfvén, a Nobel Prize winner in physics, stated: "If mankind is to survive in the 21st century, it must go back 2500 years and tap into the wisdom of Confucius." "Do not do unto others what you would not have them do unto you" has been hailed as the "Golden Rule" of shared human ethics and is displayed in the United Nations hall. In international exchanges, the basic approach of "do not do unto others what you would not have them do unto you" and "seeking common ground while shelving differences" followed by our country constitutes the cultural lead of Chinese diplomatic activities, winning the support and friendship of many developing nations.
These concepts can also be used to handle the relationship between religious and non-religious masses, as well as between different religions or different sects within the same religion. Therefore, within the horizon of adhering to the direction of the Sinicization of religion, these moral concepts are highly worth valuing and practicing to promote harmonious ethnic relations and peaceful religious relations in frontier regions characterized by multiple ethnicities and religious beliefs.
III
Chinese culture has played a very important role in the historical process of the Sinicization of religion in our country. In the New Era, we should continue to seek rich intellectual references and practical paths from Chinese culture to guide religions in adhering to the direction of Sinicization, guiding religious circles to "not forget their origins" and consciously inherit and develop the essence of the traditional experience of Sinicizing religion.
1. Adhering to the guiding position of Marxism in the ideological field
In 1982, our Party issued the "Basic Viewpoint and Policy on the Religious Question during Our Country's Socialist Period," [17] which specifically emphasized the Marxist character and direction of religious research in China. That is to say, we must use the Marxist stance, viewpoint, and method to conduct scientific research on religious issues. Because religious theology believes that "politics originates from God," it easily sanctifies political power; in reality, this is a form of "discursive fragmentation and violence" that attempts to shake the guiding position of Marxism in our country’s ideological field. Guiding religions to adhere to the direction of Sinicization is highly political, national, and cultural in nature. We must consolidate the guiding position of Marxist ideology, use Marxist stances, viewpoints, and methods to understand and treat religion, and enhance the attraction and cohesion of ideology in the New Era.
Adhering to the direction of the Sinicization of religion in our country has become the fundamental character of the Party's religious work policy in the New Era, firmly grasping the CPC's leadership and initiative over religious work. We must guide the religious community to achieve high political identification, active social adaptation, and deep cultural integration. Just as Christianity once strove to interpret its doctrines into a value system completely consistent with Confucian principles, as Islam once practiced "interpreting the scriptures through Confucianism," and as Buddhism skillfully integrated Confucian thought into its doctrines, rules, rituals, and customs, religions today must provide interpretations that meet the requirements of the New Era and correspond to fine traditional Chinese culture. They must consciously discard those contents in their rules and doctrines that conflict with socialist ideology or fine traditional Chinese culture, and obey and serve the interests of the state and the overall interests of the Chinese nation.
2. Following the historical logic of religious Sinicization and saturating religion with the intellectual resources contained in Chinese culture
The religious community should deeply tap into the intellectual resources within their doctrines and rules that support the Sinicization of religion in our country, providing interpretations consistent with the requirements of contemporary China's development and progress and fine traditional Chinese culture. This includes:
(1) Inheriting the fine tradition of mutual appreciation, tolerance, symbiosis, and harmonious coexistence among Chinese religions, and saturating religion with the moral concept of "do not do unto others what you would not have them do unto you"; (2) Reinforcing the concept that "without peace between religions, there can be no peace between nations; and without dialogue between religions, there can be no peace between religions"; (3) Educating and guiding individuals to respect the beliefs of others while loving their own, maintaining a heart of tolerance and understanding, "subduing the self and returning to ritual," [18] and "benefiting others to please oneself." One should treat others' beliefs using one’s own faith as a reference point, affirming and respecting those with different beliefs rather than slandering or discriminating against them, and certainly not using violent pressure or combat; (4) Advocating for frequent contact, extensive interaction, comprehensive exchange, and deep integration among all ethnic groups, achieving mutual understanding, respect, tolerance, appreciation, learning, and help—holding together tightly like the seeds of a pomegranate [19]; (5) Educating and guiding the religious masses to avoid emphasizing the division between religious believers and non-believers, or between followers of Religion A and Religion B. They should especially avoid reinforcing the concept of "infidels." Instead, they should emphasize their identity as citizens of the People's Republic of China, taking the realization of the Great Rejuvenation of the Chinese Nation as the common value pursuit of both religious and non-religious masses; (6) Guiding the people to possess the courage to "ask not of ghosts and spirits but of the common people" and the spirit of "daring to fight heaven and earth," [20] throwing themselves into the construction of the New Era with a proactive attitude.
The trajectory of history proves that for any religion to take root and flourish in the fertile soil of Chinese civilization, it must continuously undergo Sinicization. The religious community should have a clear understanding of this. Without the entity of the state as a support, religion would become "a tree without roots or water without a source." Therefore, the religious community should cultivate a temperament that is upright, balanced, impartial, and non-extreme. They should consciously enhance their "immunity" to effectively resist external enticement and corruption, interpreting the spirit of patriotism and social responsibility that religions in our country should possess in the New Era. By guiding the thoughts and behaviors of believers, they can help followers achieve true compassion and gentleness—being "refined and cultivated" (wén zhì bīn bīn)—further realizing unity and harmony in family and inter-ethnic relations and peace in religious relations, thereby empowering the direction of the Sinicization of religion.
3. Actively advocating a Chinese culture shared by all ethnic groups to forge a sense of community for the Chinese nation
When Buddhism and Islam historically integrated into Chinese soil and took the path of Sinicization, a very important reason was that they found the points of convergence and fusion with Chinese culture. Common elements of mutual agreement in Chinese culture are everywhere, such as "friendliness and filial piety," "honesty and trustworthiness," "fairness and justice," "unity and harmony," "frugality," and "diligence in learning"—concepts recognized and identified with by people regardless of their religious beliefs. The Islamic cultural idea of "caring for the elderly and the weak" is highly compatible with the traditional Chinese cultural principle of "respecting my own elders and extending it to the elders of others; caring for my own young and extending it to the young of others." Therefore, we must give full play to the role of shared culture in the process of adhering to the direction of religious Sinicization.
Fine traditional Chinese culture is a synthesis of the excellent cultures of all ethnic groups. All 56 ethnic groups in our country have contributed to the formation and development of Chinese culture. For instance, the Kyrgyz heroic epic Manas, the Tibetan heroic epic Epic of King Gesar, and the Mongolian Oirat heroic epic Jangar are hailed as the three famous epics of China's ethnic minorities. Masterpieces of Uyghur literature are also brilliant, with representative works such as The Wisdom of Happiness and Prosperity (Qutadgu Bilig), The Threshold of Truths (Atabetü'l-Hakayık), the Compendium of the Turkic Dialects (Dīwān Lughāt al-Turk), and the Twelve Muqam. These are all treasures in the storehouse of Chinese culture, containing rich intellectual resources. We must extract, display, and effectively apply those resources that guide religion toward Sinicization. Islamic doctrine contains rich ethical and moral norms, and "these ethical and moral norms have many points in common with the Socialist Core Values." The religious community can explore the commonalities between the two and combine them for promotion. The respect for human beings emphasized in The Wisdom of Happiness and Prosperity, which regards fairness and justice as the core of national strength—comparable to the sun shining impartially on all things—coincides with the values we advocate today. This requires us to further improve our guidance work. Using the excellent cultures of Xinjiang's ethnic minorities, which have already integrated into Chinese traditional culture, to saturate religion is more targeted and "grounded" (jiē dì qì). This is more conducive to the audience's understanding, reception, identification, and support, and can further better play the role of "saturating Xinjiang with culture." [21]
4. The religious community must consciously promote the Sinicization of religion in our country
Adhering to the direction of the Sinicization of religion in our country is a gradual process that must be both proactive and steady, focusing on practical results and maintaining long-term stability. Particular attention should be paid to mobilizing the initiative of the religious community, so they consciously promote the Sinicization of religion and interpret the intellectual chapters of the New Era in the Sinicized direction of religious development.
We firmly believe that as long as all religions on the vast land of China take root in the fertile soil of Chinese civilization, under the correct and wise leadership of the Communist Party of China, and under the saturation and nourishment of the philosophical thoughts, humanistic spirit, educational ideas, and moral concepts accumulated through the unremitting struggle of the Chinese nation for over 5,000 years, they will surely promote the formation of a religious ideological system with Chinese characteristics that meets the requirements of the times, interpreting the intellectual chapters of the New Era in the direction of Sinicized religious development.
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