Lu Jianhua and Lin Huaiyi: The Status Quo, Reflections, and Institutional Construction of Chinese Universities' Resistance Against Overseas Religious Infiltration from the Perspective of Holistic Governance
Holistic governance is "problem-solving" oriented; it advocates for the alignment of policy goals among diverse governance actors through effective coordination and integration. With the objective of achieving close cooperation and seamless collaboration, it ensures that means of policy implementation are mutually reinforcing. Holistic governance opposes fragmented management characterized by each department acting on its own [1]; instead, it advocates shifting management from dispersion toward concentration, from the partial toward the whole, and from fragmentation toward integration. This forms an organically unified whole capable of handling "wicked problems" that cross departmental and hierarchical boundaries and concern the public interest. The concept of holistic governance is an effective theoretical tool for examining the modernization of China’s religious governance and offers a unique perspective for studying how Chinese colleges and universities resist overseas religious penetration.
General Secretary Xi Jinping emphasized at the 2016 National Conference on Religious Work that we must "resolutely resist overseas penetration using religion and prevent the encroachment of religious extremist ideology." Overseas penetration using religion refers to "overseas groups, organizations, and individuals using religion to engage in various activities and propaganda that violate China's Constitution, laws, regulations, and policies." The fundamental intent of overseas religious penetration is to seize ideological territory. Universities are both key venues for talent cultivation in China and important targets for religious penetration by overseas hostile forces. In the long-term practice of resisting overseas religious penetration, Chinese universities have accumulated much quality experience and achieved substantive results, yet certain problems remain. Based on the perspective of holistic governance, this article evaluates and reflects on the current state of resisting overseas religious penetration in Chinese universities, and on this basis, explores holistic governance ideas and countermeasures for the New Era. Compared to traditional management and control approaches, holistic governance pays closer attention to the scientific nature of governance concepts, the synergy of governance actors, the targeted nature of governance methods, and the effectiveness of governance mechanisms, possessing strong practical significance and application value.
I. Status Quo and Experience of Chinese Universities in Resisting Overseas Religious Penetration
During the protracted struggle between "penetration and counter-penetration," Chinese universities have done extensive work in resisting overseas religious penetration by constructing organizational management systems, legal and policy frameworks, and systems for education in ideals and convictions, thereby accumulating significant experience and achieving positive social outcomes.
(A) Attaching high importance and building efficient organizational management systems
Establishing work teams. The primary actors in resisting overseas religious penetration in Chinese universities are the relevant functional departments of the school under the leadership of the Party Committee, as well as the ideological-political and Party affairs staff within various grassroots colleges and departments. Some universities have also established specialized leading groups for resisting overseas religious penetration, generally headed by the principal school leaders. Members include heads of functional departments such as the Party and Administration Office, Publicity Department, United Front Work Department, Student Affairs Department, Graduate School, Security Office, Personnel Office, Academic Affairs Office, International Exchange Office, Scientific Research Office, and the Communist Youth League Committee, as well as the secretaries of the Party Committees (Party General Branches) of various secondary units. In recent years, teachers of ideological and political theory courses and professional courses have also increasingly participated and played a role.
Clarifying the targets of work. China implements a policy of freedom of religious belief, and the legitimate religious activities of religious citizens are protected by law. The use of religion for penetration usually manifests as overseas hostile forces utilizing religion to conduct secessionist activities, interfere in China's internal religious affairs, or engage in illegal proselytization. Specifically regarding universities, the targets of resistance are primarily persons and activities suspected of illegal religious propagation. For example, some religious organizations and individuals conduct illegal proselytization on campus through forms such as organizing student fellowships, a trend that has intensified in recent years. Consequently, most universities target activities such as "distributing religious propaganda materials," "conducting house churches [2] around the campus periphery," and "teaching religion through the internet and email."
Operation of linear organizational management models. For a period, resisting penetration in Chinese universities relied primarily on a linear organizational management model. Under this model, schools distribute work tasks layer by layer according to requirements issued by higher authorities, and work feedback is reported back up through the hierarchy. This model is characterized by clearly centralized management authority and uniform instructions, enabling the efficient completion of tasks assigned by superiors. In a sense, this model leans toward a management and control [3] mindset; of course, even "governance" does not exclude necessary control, and under certain spatial and temporal conditions, adopting this model has its rationality and applicability.
(B) Managing according to law and forming a complete legal and policy system
Article 36 of the Chinese Constitution stipulates: "The state protects normal religious activities. No one may make use of religion to engage in activities that disrupt public order, impair the health of citizens or interfere with the educational system of the state." It further states: "Religious bodies and religious affairs are not subject to any foreign domination." The Education Law of the People's Republic of China explicitly provides: "The state implements the separation of education and religion. No organization or individual may use religion to conduct activities that interfere with the state's educational system." The Regulations on the Administration of Students in Regular Institutions of Higher Education clearly require that "schools shall adhere to the principle of separation of education and religion. No organization or individual may conduct religious activities in schools." The Regulations on the Administration of Accepting Foreign Students in Higher Education Institutions emphasize that "proselytizing and religious gatherings are strictly prohibited on campus." Subsequently, some provinces, autonomous regions, municipalities, and individual universities formulated relevant implementation opinions and management regulations. In 2020, the Opinions on Accelerating the Construction of the Ideological and Political Work System in Higher Education Institutions, jointly issued by eight departments including the Ministry of Education, the Organization Department of the CPC Central Committee, and the Publicity Department of the CPC Central Committee, required that all universities must earnestly implement the responsibility system for ideological work, "resolutely resisting overseas religious penetration and preventing campus proselytization." To implement the spirit of documents from higher authorities, various universities have formulated specific measures and work plans tailored to their own realities, making the work of resisting overseas religious penetration more law-based and regulated.
(C) Providing active guidance and constructing a complete system for education in ideals and convictions
Running ideological and political theory courses well. Ideological and political theory courses are the main channel for resisting overseas religious penetration in Chinese universities. From the perspective of the curriculum: the "Basic Principles of Marxism" course aims to help students grasp Marxism as a whole, wherein the content on scientific atheism serves as a sharp weapon against overseas religious penetration. The "Introduction to Mao Zedong Thought and the Theoretical System of Socialism with Chinese Characteristics" and "Xi Jinping New Era Chinese Characteristics Socialist Thought" courses aim to help students master the theoretical achievements of the Sinicization of Marxism; the Party's theory and basic policies on religious work contained therein have a clear counter-penetration orientation. The "Outline of Modern and Contemporary Chinese History" course aims to guide students in understanding the "Four Choices" [4] and strengthening historical confidence, with the storytelling of the Party leading the people to resist overseas religious penetration being an important component. The "Ideological, Moral, and Legal Cultivation" course aims to guide students toward a scientific understanding of life and strengthen their moral and legal literacy, within which resisting overseas religious penetration is an inherent requirement. Simultaneously, in accordance with General Secretary Xi Jinping’s requirement at the National Conference on Ideological and Political Work in Higher Education Institutions to "ensure that all types of courses move in the same direction as ideological and political theory courses to form a synergistic effect," the pace of "Curriculum Ideology and Politics" [5] construction in universities is accelerating. In short, from principles and original works to Sinicized achievements, from history and reality to the future, and from serious ideological transmission to warm-hearted persuasive education—especially by teaching the necessity of the Sinicization of religion in China—universities have effectively enhanced students' vigilance against overseas religious penetration. This encourages them to actively combine resistance with the practice of Core Socialist Values and their own healthy growth.
Conducting campus cultural activities. University campus culture is a high-level form of social subculture. During the growth and development of university students, it "enables every person on campus to imperceptibly achieve identification with the mainstream culture (socialist culture) in terms of ideological concepts, conscious potential, psychological quality, behavioral patterns, and value orientations through the specific spiritual environment and cultural atmosphere of the campus." Universities guide students' ideals, convictions, and value orientations through campus propaganda platforms; popularize the Marxist view of religion and religious laws and policies through public cultural activities such as knowledge competitions, speech contests, and essay prizes; enhance students' social skills and sense of collective honor through diverse and interesting club activities; and resolve difficulties in students' study and life through campus "one-stop" comprehensive service platforms to reduce feelings of helplessness. This forms a campus cultural educational atmosphere characterized by patriotism and school loyalty, integrating ideological, intellectual, entertaining, and service-oriented elements, creating a protective layer for campus culture against overseas religious penetration. Simultaneously, universities pay special attention to using modern new media technology to provide positive guidance to online public opinion, in order to dissolve the negative influence on students from illegal online platforms operating under the banner of religion.
Strengthening humanistic care. Students with difficult family financial situations, domestic disharmony, or poor interpersonal skills are more likely to seek the embrace of religion to obtain the comfort and warmth that are difficult to find in reality. To this end, humanistic care and psychological counseling in universities have become increasingly important. In this regard, the vast number of counselors and class teachers have done extensive work. It is through their material and spiritual care that some students are able to adjust their mindsets and emerge from the shadows when facing setbacks and difficulties, integrating into normal campus learning and life, and avoiding being attracted, penetrated, or utilized by people with ulterior motives.
In short, university governance cannot be separated from the work of resisting overseas religious penetration. As an important part of ideological and political work in Chinese universities and an indispensable part of the Party’s religious work, resisting overseas religious penetration has contributed to the fundamental task of "fostering virtue through education" (lì dé shù rén).
II. Problems and Reflections on Resisting Overseas Religious Penetration in Chinese Universities from the Perspective of Holistic Governance
Entering the New Era, the penetration of overseas religious forces into universities has continuously evolved toward more concealed intentions, diverse methods, professional means, and an internationalized scope. From the perspective of holistic governance, one can see that problems still exist in the concepts, actors, methods, and systems of governance in the work of resisting overseas religious penetration in Chinese universities.
(A) Governance concepts remain primarily focused on emergency stability maintenance
According to the concept of holistic governance, the work of resisting overseas religious penetration in universities should uphold the concept of synergy to increase the number of actors and the degree of participation in religious penetration governance; it should uphold humanistic and service-oriented concepts to form an automatic protection layer centered on students; and it should uphold the concept of "intelligence" [6] to innovate ideas and methods for resisting penetration. However, influenced by multiple factors such as concepts, systems, personnel, and technology, the current concept of resisting overseas penetration in Chinese universities remains centered on traditional "pressure-based control" and "emergency stability maintenance" (WW) [7], playing the role of a "firefighter." Due to "path dependency" on the top-down linear organizational management model, current university work often proceeds from short-term and singular perspectives, with the focus leaning toward emergency handling of sudden incidents. This reactive response to sudden events often ignores the deep-seated causes of overseas religious penetration, making it difficult to avoid a situation where staff are exhausted by handling symptoms with poor long-term results.
(B) Insufficient participation of governance actors
Based on the logic of holistic governance, the work of resisting religious penetration in Chinese universities must persist in the centralized and unified leadership of the Party Committee, while also insisting on the diversification of governance actors and ensuring their full participation. However, there is still insufficient participation from certain actors—for example, students. In the work of resisting overseas religious penetration, students should rightfully be a major force to rely upon; they are the "masters of the house." The final goal of this work is to provide a healthy campus ecosystem for the growth of students. If students can be mobilized to participate in various ways, hostile forces and saboteurs will fall into a "vast ocean" of resistance [8], giving the work a solid foundation. Therefore, "nanny-style" work methods that treat students only as objects to be protected and "patriarchal" measures that treat them only as targets of work no longer meet the requirements of holistic governance for the full participation of diverse actors. Another example is the participation of off-campus forces. Resisting overseas religious penetration cannot and should not be a lonely battle fought by universities alone. Instead, local government United Front departments, religious affairs departments, public security departments, and cyberspace administration departments should be included as governance actors. Only by realizing "linked governance" can synergy be formed, but these forces are currently not yet well integrated.
(3) Governance methods lean toward "passive reaction" The infiltration of Chinese universities by overseas religious forces is a process; from the perspective of holistic governance, "whole-process governance" should be implemented. We must have the courage to struggle [9] and strike back according to the law against overt religious infiltration that has already caused harm. However, anti-infiltration work in universities cannot stop there. After all, this is a "late-mover" processing method triggered after the fact, and the working methods adopted are mainly "containment" and "control." Due to information asymmetry, most universities lack a clear understanding of the information and dynamics regarding resistance to overseas religious infiltration. They are often limited to dealing with issues on a case-by-case basis, which affects the monitoring coverage of infiltration risks and causes problems such as large deviations in early warnings. Therefore, this "block-and-control" work model is not only unfavorable for the thorough resolution of infiltration issues but also increases the cost of resisting overseas religious infiltration and restricts the improvement of work efficiency. From the perspective of holistic governance, the working method of universities in resisting overseas religious infiltration should shift as soon as possible from "passive-reactive" to "proactive-actionary." The gateway for resisting infiltration should be moved forward, utilizing modern information technology and innovating work methods to form a multi-dimensional governance system covering the entire governance process and achieving integrated governance goals.
(4) The governance system is incomplete and lacks coordination The core concept of holistic governance is to emphasize that the policy goals among various governance subjects must be continuous and consistent, and the means of execution must reinforce each other, thereby achieving seamless holistic coordination. The work of resisting overseas religious infiltration in universities involves multiple departments, fields, and levels; therefore, it requires collaborative cooperation and linked operations in specific actions. Currently, although the work system in Chinese universities covers departments such as United Front Work [10], student affairs, teaching, scientific research, foreign affairs, security, publicity [11], and Schools of Marxism, the frequency of linkage between various departments and levels is insufficient, interaction methods are inefficient, and synergistic effectiveness is lacking. Especially at the front end of prevention, there are still problems such as departments acting independently and a lack of connection, leading to dispersed work, singular methods, repetitive content, and undistinguished results. Furthermore, the work lacks process supervision, and the governance effectiveness lacks a scientific evaluation index system, which weakens the motivation and energy of universities to invest in this work.
III. Construction Ideas for the Governance Mechanism of Religious Infiltration in New Era Universities from the Perspective of Holistic Governance An important background for the emergence of holistic governance theory is the rapid development of modern information technology. The rapid and open nature of information networks brings both challenges and opportunities to the work of resisting overseas religious infiltration. Leveraging the openness of the internet, various governance subjects can achieve direct interactive participation and exchange, thereby breaking the unidirectional nature of information dissemination in traditional work models. Consequently, what universities face is no longer a single lower level, but aggregate groups with the capacity for dialogue. Groups formed by those with the need and ability for dialogue, bound by common goals, will generate mobilizing force, thus solving the problem of motivation for governance subjects. This governance consensus and motivation developed through exchange and dialogue—manifested as governance actions according to certain norms and accompanied by responsive results—form a holistic governance model based on aggregate groups. In the New Era, work in Chinese universities should be based on the concept of holistic governance, establishing a mechanism consisting of four links: cognitive prevention, monitoring and early warning, analysis and disposal, and supervision and evaluation, striving to improve governance effectiveness.
(1) Cognitive prevention mechanism General Secretary Xi Jinping pointed out at the 2016 National Conference on Religious Work: "We must establish and improve a strong leadership mechanism, and do a good job in leading, planning, guiding, and supervising religious work." We must soberly recognize that resisting overseas religious infiltration is a complex, sharp, and long-term political struggle; it is an extremely important and urgent task facing religious work, publicity work, and ideological security work. Party committees, governments, and universities at all levels must attach great importance to anti-infiltration work, recognize its complexity, urgency, and extreme importance, and give full play to the role of leadership systems and coordination mechanisms. Resisting religious infiltration should be treated as a major event for maintaining campus security and stability, and as an important indicator for evaluating the quality of school operations and the effectiveness of educating people. Therefore, in terms of cognitive prevention, universities in the New Era should establish a special work leading group under the direct leadership of the university Party committee, and formulate specific implementation plans for education and contingency plans for risk based on the actual conditions of the school and locality. In terms of governance mechanisms, the past top-down linear management model—which relied on administrative orders and the downward pressure of responsibility through successive levels—should be abandoned. Relevant departments should clarify their responsibilities, perform their duties, and strengthen coordination to integrate resources, forming a multi-directional interaction and behavioral linkage mechanism (diagram omitted) among governance subjects that is divergent, equal, fluid, and responsive, thereby condensing a powerful synergistic force to resist infiltration.
(2) Monitoring and early warning mechanism Constructing a sound monitoring and early warning mechanism is the first gateway for resisting overseas religious infiltration. Monitoring and early warning are forecasting activities that provide the premise and foundation for governance subjects to make timely, effective, and scientific judgments and disposals through continuous, uninterrupted dynamic monitoring, measurement, and information collection of student dynamics, public opinion [12], campus dynamics, and teaching/research dynamics.
Student dynamics monitoring and early warning mechanism. The core of this work is the students. Therefore, the system must center on students, forming a mechanism centered on the Student Affairs Department (including the Graduate Student Affairs Department), composed of groups such as student communities (dormitory management, dormitory self-discipline committees, room monitors), department counselors, class advisors (mentors), campus youth league organizations, psychological counseling rooms, and informal student organizations.
Public opinion monitoring and early warning mechanism. This serves as a wind vane for subjects to understand campus public opinion and is an important means of controlling the development of opinion and analyzing the infiltration situation. In the internet age, any idea can be spread through the network. Therefore, this system should focus on campus network public opinion, with the Party Committee Publicity Department as the hub, involving official campus omni-media platforms (official Weibo/WeChat, "Learning Power" [13] accounts), faculty/student self-media, local cyberspace administration departments, and professional technical teams.
Campus dynamics monitoring and early warning mechanism. Corresponding to the network focus of public opinion monitoring, this mechanism targets physical infiltration risks within and around the campus. Since it may face actual hostile infiltrators, it should be centered on the Security Department, involving the campus police office, student communities, campus residential committees, local sub-district offices, and public security organs.
Teaching and research dynamics monitoring and early warning mechanism. Fostering virtue through education (立德树人) [14] is the foundation of a university, and "soul-shaping education" is its fundamental function. For a period, university classrooms became a stage for individual teachers to display so-called "personal uniqueness"; some advocated religious freedom and Western values under the banners of "no forbidden zones in research" and "academic freedom," confusing students' cognition and endangering political stability. Therefore, a mechanism centered on the Academic Affairs Office should be formed, involving the Research Office, International Exchange Office, Publicity Department, Personnel Office, School of Marxism, and various departmental Party committees and student Party members.
(3) Analysis and disposal mechanism Scientific risk analysis and reasonable disposal are the central links of anti-infiltration work. Based on information from monitoring, this process uses integrated analysis to evaluate the status of religious infiltration, forms risk perceptions, assigns risk ratings, and adopts governance measures.
Information sharing mechanism. Accurate perception of risk is a prerequisite. We must improve top-down information-sharing platforms. First, establish internal campus sharing to map religious infiltration risks and build highly confidential collection platforms. Second, establish a mechanism for sharing "desensitized" cases to learn from mature anti-infiltration experiences for cases past their confidentiality period. Finally, establish a "blacklist" system for religious infiltration, where government and higher religious management departments share information on risky persons or organizations with universities.
Analysis and judgment mechanism. Making scientific judgments requires experienced functional department heads and subject experts. To avoid biases from a single knowledge background or departmental thinking, a collective judgment is needed. Under the leadership of the university Party committee, a stable working mechanism should be formed, headed by the United Front Work Department and including heads of student affairs, teaching, research, foreign affairs, and security, alongside experts in Marxist philosophy, Marxist religious studies, political science, communications, and psychology.
Intervention and disposal mechanism. Once the expert group reaches a judgment, the special work leading group must quickly assign a risk rating and report disposal suggestions to higher authorities. Implementation requires a coordination mechanism involving off-campus units to mobilize all governance subjects to govern overseas religious infiltration effectively.
(4) Supervision and evaluation mechanism A sound supervision and evaluation mechanism ensures that governance goals do not deviate, subjects are not absent, and motivation is sustainable.
Mechanism construction status. This mainly involves checking and evaluating the implementation of laws and policies from the CPC Central Committee, the State Council, and relevant departments. For example, checking if universities have formulated specific implementation plans for anti-infiltration education, evaluating the integration of this education into Ideological and Political Theory Courses [15], and checking for the existence of emergency contingency plans.
Implementation of responsibilities. This primarily involves inspecting and evaluating whether the governance subjects responsible for resisting overseas religious infiltration in Chinese universities are fulfilling their governance duties according to established workflows. Each working body involved in resisting overseas religious infiltration must perform its duties in accordance with relevant laws, regulations, policy documents, and established procedures. This includes, for example, inspecting the student affairs department’s mastery and recording of student dynamics; inspecting the publicity department’s screening of infiltration risks in campus public opinion; and inspecting the security department’s screening of infiltration risk points within and around the campus perimeter.
Risk resolution status. This primarily involves screening and surveying the effectiveness of resisting overseas religious infiltration in China's universities. For instance, conducting questionnaire surveys on university students' religious beliefs and their cognitive awareness of religious infiltration risks allows for a comprehensive grasp of the actual effectiveness of resistance efforts.
Taken as a whole, the cognition of religious infiltration risks and the construction of prevention systems in China’s universities affect the timeliness and richness of capturing risk signals. In turn, timely and accurate monitoring and early warning directly impact the scientific and rational nature of the assessment of the infiltration situation. The quality of this assessment affects the rationality and appropriateness of risk disposal. Finally, whole-process supervision and evaluation serve to correct deviations, provide incentives, summarize experiences, and elevate theory, which conversely promotes the university’s cognition, monitoring, and assessment of religious infiltration risks. This forms a governance mechanism for resisting overseas religious infiltration in universities in the New Era, characterized by the coordination of multiple subjects, dynamic group linkage, and "sharing-trust-cooperation" (Figure omitted).
IV. Conclusion
The famous sociologist of religion Peter Berger, who once asserted that the world would continue to secularize, reflected on his previous judgment of desecularization in his book The Desecularization of the World: Resurgent Religion and Global Politics. He admitted that "experiments with secularized religion have generally failed; religious movements with a traditionalist or even 'fundamentalist' character are on the rise; and this tendency to return to the traditional sources of religious authority has become a common feature transcending cultural boundaries." Furthermore, according to research data from the Pew Research Center, if current trends continue, the followers of almost all mainstream religions—except Buddhism—are steadily increasing. The global population of religious believers is expected to increase from 84% in 2015 to 88% by 2050, with Christians (including Catholics, Orthodox, and Protestants) and Muslims increasing to 34.1% and 29.7% [16] of the world's total population, respectively. The world today is undergoing profound changes unseen in a century [17], and a world that once became secularized seems to be developing in the opposite direction.
For a long time, Western ideological infiltration against China has never ceased. Under the banner of "freedom of religious belief," they erode the cultural foundations of Chinese civilization in a vain attempt to weaken our cultural confidence [18]. Asserting that the Western path is the only road to modernization, they wave the "civilizational cudgel" to criticize the path of socialism with Chinese characteristics, attempting to weaken our path confidence. Packaging Western values as "universal values," they question the scientific nature and truth of Sinicized Marxist theory, attempting to weaken our theory confidence. Flaunting so-called "Western-style democracy and freedom" and advocating that "human rights are superior to sovereignty," they ignore China's development achievements in an attempt to weaken our institutional confidence.
Among these efforts, religious infiltration is an important means and form used by overseas hostile forces against China. Anti-China forces led by the United States have symbolized "religious freedom," flaunting it as a symbol of Western-style democracy and free society, making it a strategic tool for individual countries to promote hegemonism. As bases for talent cultivation and high ground for the dissemination of ideas, China's universities are also key targets for religious infiltration by overseas hostile forces. This multifaceted struggle between "infiltration and anti-infiltration" will be long-term, complex, and constantly evolving. Therefore, universities in the New Era must continuously innovate the systems and mechanisms for resisting overseas religious infiltration and activate the institutional momentum of resistance to win the final victory in this great struggle [19].