Zhou Wei: The Development, Main Content, and Historical Evaluation of Yun Daiying's Atheistic Thought
Atheism is a fundamental viewpoint of Marxism and a powerful weapon for the critique of religion by Marx and Engels. Marx noted: "Against all heavenly and earthly gods," "no gods should be placed alongside human self-consciousness." [1] As the advanced form of scientific atheism, Marxist atheism served as an ideological weapon for early Chinese Marxists to analyze and critique practical issues. Yun Daiying (1895–1931), hailed as the "beloved leader of Chinese youth," was a theoretical giant of the early Communist Party of China (CPC) and a pioneer in propagating atheism. Utilizing Marxist atheism, he launched a comprehensive exposure and critique of religious theology and feudal superstition, continuously deepening the connotation of atheism and forming a relatively scientific and complete atheistic thought with his own distinct characteristics.
I. The Developmental Trajectory of Yun Daiying’s Atheistic Thought
Yun Daiying was a Chinese proletarian revolutionary and a representative figure in the dissemination of New Thought, New Culture, and atheism in modern China. Throughout his long-term theoretical creation and revolutionary practice, he creatively inherited and developed Marxist atheism in light of China’s actual conditions, forming a series of viewpoints on atheism. The formation of Yun Daiying’s atheistic thought possessed a profound theoretical foundation and a sharp social background, undergoing a long-term, step-by-step process from emergence and development to maturity.
(1) Materialism and gnosticism laid the theoretical foundation for Yun Daiying’s development of atheism
First, materialism was the theoretical basis for Yun’s development of atheism. The social transformation of modern China was exceptionally slow, yet the metabolism of ideas was hyper-fast; various viewpoints and doctrines, such as materialism and idealism, appeared one after another and clashed frequently. Yun Daiying firmly believed in materialism, holding that the world is material rather than conscious, and that ghosts and gods are false rather than real. In On the Reality of Matter, he pointed out: "Matter must simply be existence." [2] Especially after accepting Marxism, his materialist stance became firmer and his atheistic attitude more resolute. Yun vigorously critiqued idealism and theism, noting that "the words of idealist scholars inevitably lack factual basis." [3] In his view, matter is an objective reality that does not change according to subjective sensations such as sight or hearing; the blind cannot see colors and the deaf cannot hear sounds, but colors and sounds do not disappear because of this. Theists, he argued, are thoroughgoing idealists; their imaginary ghosts and gods are entirely products of the subjective spirit, characterized by the notion that "they exist if you believe, but do not if you don't." They are idealist rather than materialist. Materialism was the theoretical core of Yun’s atheistic thought, prompting his firm conviction that ghosts and gods are products of consciousness rather than objective existence.
Second, gnosticism was the theoretical tool for Yun’s development of atheism. Yun believed that all things can be known by humans, and that the cognition of things involves a process of transition from the unknown to the known. There are no things that humans cannot know; the unknown is temporary, not permanent, and this applies to the recognition of the illusory nature of theism. Although tales of ghosts and gods are shrouded in mist and are highly deceptive, one day people will surely be able to fully demonstrate their falsehood and trickery. He pointed out: "Whatever is called 'inconceivable' is not presided over by God or eternally beyond the scope of human cognition; it is merely governed by scientific principles not yet discovered, and is thus temporarily unknown to people today. It is not absolutely impossible for humans to want to know every thing and every matter in the world." [4] With the continuous development of science, theistic theories will collapse of their own accord. He asserted: "Those things once thought to be divine can partly be explained by science today; how do we know that what is considered non-divine today will not be even more partially, or even entirely, explained by science in the future?" [5] In Yun’s eyes, along with the vigorous development of science, human cognitive capacity would improve and its scope would expand. The mystery and "unknowability" of ghostly phenomena and paranormal events would gradually be broken by humans using science. Atheism would be universally accepted and widely recognized, and theism would be thoroughly eradicated. Gnosticism helped Yun deeply analyze the illusory essence of theism, pointing out that no supernatural or non-material forces exist in the world, and that gods and ghosts cannot possibly exist.
(2) The prevalence of feudal superstitious activities prompted Yun Daiying’s deep reflection on atheism
During the late Qing and Republican periods, China faced both internal troubles and external threats. Internally, there was the chaotic infighting of warlords; externally, there were the encroachments of imperialism. The state apparatus grew increasingly decayed. Consequently, the intellectual sphere was flooded with "foul mud and stagnant water"; "for a time, all sectors of society suddenly began talking at length about ghosts, gods, and spiritual cultivation." [6] Domestic feudal landlords, reactionary warlords, and foreign colonialist and imperialist forces took the opportunity to use religious theology to paralyze the masses. They attempted to use decayed feudal concepts and superstitions of ghosts and gods to delude people’s minds, aiming to maintain their reactionary rule or seize maximum benefits. This led to a resurgence of various religious forces wildly propagating religious theism. People lacking scientific knowledge were easily misled by theism, mistakenly believing in the existence of God, immortals, and demons. This caused ideas of deity worship and feudal superstition to reach a fever pitch and spread everywhere, with folk superstitions such as seeking divine help, kowtowing and burning incense, and divination becoming extremely popular. As Yun Daiying said: "Today, whether in the marketplace or the countryside, any person you meet—be they a loyal gentleman or a peddler chasing profit—if pressed to speak of ghosts, can talk volubly based on what their ears have heard and eyes have seen." [7] At that time, the poison of theism was widespread, superstitious activities occurred everywhere, and the superstitious population was exceptionally large. Mao Zedong pointed out: "Of China’s four hundred million people, almost three hundred and ninety million are superstitious." [8] Feudal superstitious concepts were deeply rooted and difficult to remove; there were those who believed in gods and ghosts, those who believed in God, those who believed in fatalism, and those who believed in raw power. Yun Daiying abhorred this phenomenon and continuously conducted deep reflections on atheism, hoping to break this chaos by critiquing religious theism and developing, propagating, and popularizing atheism.
(3) The formation of Yun Daiying’s atheistic thought underwent a gradual evolution from the shallow to the deep and from the surface to the interior
The journey from the birth of Yun’s atheistic thought to its relative maturity was not achieved overnight but through a long and slow process of development. From his birth in 1895 to joining the CPC in 1921, and finally to his martyrdom in Nanjing in 1931 [9], his atheistic thought underwent a thorough and significant transformation during his short yet brilliant life.
In his youth, Yun Daiying was already an atheist. In May 1915, he published "New Atheism" in the Guanghua Academic Journal, clearly stating: "I am one who ultimately advocates for atheism." [10] However, at this stage, some of his atheistic thoughts were not yet complete. On one hand, Yun opposed Christian ideas such as the unknowability of the world and God ruling the universe; he refused the invitations of missionaries and the YMCA to join the church. On the other hand, he admired the character and self-cultivation models of Christians as well as certain Christian concepts. In June 1918, he stated that "Christ, as a commoner, moved the world" [11]; in January 1921, he even stated directly that he "worshiped the personal character of Jesus." [12] Therefore, at this time, some of his atheistic viewpoints were not yet perfected or deep, and even suffered from the defects of being a mixture of love and hate or being ambiguous.
After joining the CPC in August 1921 and becoming a Marxist, Yun’s atheistic viewpoints were continuously updated, gradually tending toward perfection and maturity. He began to expound on the issue of religious theism from the standpoint of the nation and the people, deeply dissecting the roots and influence of the proliferation of religious theology from the perspective of political and economic systems, rather than floating on the surface by discussing superstition only in terms of superstition or religion only in terms of religion. He believed that the root of religious theism’s numbing effect on the people lay in the system of cruel exploitation and oppression; the wide spread of religious theism was closely related to the machinations of reactionary forces such as feudalism and imperialism. In April 1924, in Christianity and Social Service, he pointed out: "What Christianity relies on is entirely the money sent by foreigners for proselytizing; the life of Christianity is tied to this kind of money." [13] He achieved multiple transformations: from worshiping Jesus to viewing Jesus deeply; from admiring the character of Christians to critiquing the Christian idea of "saving the nation through character"; and from wanting to use Christianity to transform society to recognizing that Christianity was a tool of cultural aggression. He began to oppose religious education and advocated for the separation of religion from politics and education. In May 1926, he noted: "The more developed the schools run by foreigners are, the fewer people there will be who oppose imperialism, and the more the national spirit of us Chinese will suffer." [14] By this time, Yun Daiying had transformed into a Marxist atheist and began to gradually apply the viewpoints of Marxist atheism to recognize and analyze religious theism, leading to the sublimation of his atheistic thought.
II. The Main Connotations of Yun Daiying’s Atheistic Thought
"God" is an illusory concept created by human society at a specific stage of development; "belief in gods and religion is often the result of the combined action of natural, social, and cognitive roots." [15] Marx pointed out: "The problem can only be solved by explaining the origin and development of religion according to the historical conditions under which it arose and attained dominance." [16] Under the guidance of Marxist atheism, Yun Daiying conducted deep theoretical explorations into basic religious issues and the concept of freedom of religious belief, putting forward unique insights.
(1) Analyzing basic religious issues
First, Yun Daiying believed that religion is essentially a reflection of human subjective consciousness—a modification and compensation at the conceptual level for real existence. He pointed out that religion is an inevitable product of human social development: "Religious rituals, creeds, and myths are also products that naturally arise from human evolution." [17] Fetishism and polytheism are both forms of religious expression. In his view, religion is a conscious mapping of external forces by humans; God is nothing more than a fiction of the real world by humans, lacking scientific basis. He noted: "What religion calls 'heavenly gods' are certainly not the essence of heavenly gods, but merely arise from the imagination of one or two people. Since those one or two people are not omniscient, the heavenly gods they imagine definitely have no way of being omniscient." [18] In short, religion is a simplified version of an idealized world or a spiritual refuge built by humans themselves. Yun denied the existence of God and firmly believed that religious theism is superstitious and arbitrary; it is humans who create gods, not gods who create humans.
Second, Yun Daiying pointed out that the formation and evolution of religion have deep and complex historical and cultural roots. He summarized the causes of religion into six aspects. One is arising from fear: when facing natural disasters like earthquakes and tsunamis, humans are shocked by the divine power of the universe and submit to an unknown divine authority, attempting to use the power of religious deities to resist disasters "in the hope of perhaps escaping sin and calamity." Two is arising from hope: in times of hardship, humans easily fantasize about obtaining the protection of deities. Three is arising from misidentification: humans are easily disturbed by metaphysics and mistakenly believe in theories of ghosts and gods. Four is arising from misunderstanding: when science is backward, "whenever something slightly unusual is encountered... and an explanation cannot be found, it is assumed there must be ghosts and gods." Five is arising from aesthetic feeling: wonderful natural phenomena like beautiful landscapes and the movement of the sun and moon "arouse in humans the thought of an omniscient, omnipotent, and omnipresent God." Six is arising from imagination: people "visualize a perfect ideal, and thus name this ideal 'God'." [19] In his eyes, religion and theism are born together and intertwined; religion has not always existed but emerged only when human thinking reached a certain level. Broadly speaking, religion originated from nature worship or deity worship in primitive society; it is a spiritual product of humans suffering under the heavy pressure of hardship and disaster when productive forces and knowledge levels were extremely low.
Finally, Yun Daiying predicted that religion would eventually wither away as its function disappeared. He did not entirely deny the value of religion, noting that it actually has a double effect—both positive and negative—though the negative effects are more prominent. He believed that as an objective, long-standing social phenomenon, religion inevitably possesses certain functions of psychological comfort and social integration; even folk sects like the White Lotus Sect or the Red Lantern Sect were no exception. "Using religion as a convenient method naturally has its practical utility" [20]; "the church does not lack good people" [21], and some religious adherents have made great contributions to social development. However, the positive and negative effects of religion are relative and not fixed; they are changeable and transferable. From a developmental perspective, the positive effects of religion will gradually weaken and disappear along with the evolution of human civilization. The disappearance of religion is inevitable; therefore, the benefits of retaining religion are small while the harms are great. He noted: "The utility of religion is so minute of the minute that it is essentially insignificant." [22] With the increasing dilution of religious belief, the day will eventually come when no one believes in religion anymore. The decline and disappearance of religion is the general trend.
(2) Explaining the concept of freedom of religious belief
First, Yun Daiying believed that religious behavior has its own necessity and rationality, and that the reasons for religious belief are complex. He stated: "The human mind always needs something to cling to; it is unwilling to remain in a state of suspicion... and thus easily falls into the ruts of religion. Naturally, within this process, there is the attraction of one’s own emotions and the suggestive effect of social habits." [17] Religious belief is the result of the interaction of multiple factors, such as the practitioners' lack of rational thinking and the inducement of the social environment. Generally, those with weaker willpower are more prone to deity worship or religious belief: "The religious devotee does not use his own mind, but follows the heavenly gods with his heart." [18] Consequently, a distorted and fictional image of an omniscient and omnipotent heavenly god is constructed in the mind, and the individual subsequently attempts to obtain the protection of deities or achieve communication with them through religious practice. Therefore, the more a place suffers from material and economic poverty or a lack of cultural education, the more religious belief prevails and the more believers there are.
Second, Yun Daiying advocated for a freedom of religious belief that possessed a bottom line, principles, and prerequisites. He pointed out that religion is universal and that believing in a religion is an individual's freedom, which should be understood and accepted. "Religion is universal; it can almost be said to be innate." [19] Even some scientists and philosophers find it difficult to leap over the barriers of religion. He stated frankly: "We do not interfere with other people's freedom of religious belief." [20] In his eyes, whether to believe or not, and which religion to follow, are personal choices that should not be subject to forced interference. Sufficient respect should be given to religious populations, and one should not harbor prejudice. However, freedom of religious belief is by no means without a bottom line or independent of regulations; it can only be realized under normal state management and sound moral constraints, and religious activities must be carried out under the prerequisite of complying with laws and regulations. If the name of religious freedom is used to conduct illegal activities that harm society and others, those carrying out such illegal religious activities must be severely sanctioned and resolutely suppressed. Yun Daiying believed that Christians were easily controlled by foreign missionaries and prone to being indoctrinated with Western culture and slave ideology; therefore, "for those who hold Christian beliefs, it is naturally best to persuade them to leave the religion." [21]
(3) Clarifying the distinction between religious belief and scientific belief
Yun Daiying argued that there are clear and essential differences between religious belief and scientific belief, and the two cannot be equated. First, the inclusiveness of religious belief and scientific belief differs. He emphasized: "The authority of religion over people begins with the awakening of faith and resides in devoutness. Religion is faith; without faith, there is no religion." [22] In his view, religious belief is absolutely dogmatic and possesses a severe exclusivity, unable to accept any doubt or criticism; scientific belief, however, is inclusive, allowing for questioning and willingness to accept criticism. That is to say, scientific belief possesses a breadth of mind and a powerful mettle that religious belief cannot match.
Second, the scientific nature of religious belief and scientific belief differs. Yun Daiying pointed out that there is a strict boundary between the two in their basic connotative categories. Scientific belief contains scientific truth and scientific laws and is therefore credible; religious belief, conversely, transfers fear and awe onto specific objects and places hope in imaginary deities—it is a subjective fabrication. He said: "Since all legendary miracles are proved day by day to be misunderstandings or forced analogies, at least a part of religion is untrustworthy, and in fact, a large part is untrustworthy." [23] Therefore, there is no necessity to believe in religious fictions that lack a basis in objective fact.
Third, the functions of religious belief and scientific belief differ. Yun Daiying believed that scientific belief has an indisputable positive effect, capable of pushing people to strive upward—making the timid brave, the weak strong, the distracted diligent, and the restless tranquil—whereas religious belief does not function this way. In his work On Faith, he pointed out: "To say that faith cannot be abandoned is already a subpar argument. Furthermore, to say that because faith cannot be abandoned, religion likewise cannot be discarded, is even more open to debate." [24] He believed that religious belief and scientific belief are nearly opposite and antithetical existences; the two must never be conflated. Scientific belief is a necessity, but with religious belief, it is better to have none than to have any.
(4) Analysis of the relationship between theism and the development of science
Early Chinese Marxists generally believed that theism and science were in conflict with one each other. As Li Dazhao pointed out: "We firmly believe that religion is something that hinders human progress." [25] Yun Daiying likewise looked upon theism with contempt, regarding it as the antithesis of science.
First, Yun Daiying believed that theism is detrimental to scientific research. In February 1921, he pointed out in My Views on Religion: "The worst defect of believing in miracles is that it slackens and obstructs the progress of scientific research." [26] He argued that science appeals to reason and is grounded in objective realities such as empirical evidence, while theism appeals to emotion and relies on void illusions. The two move in opposite directions and are incompatible in terms of their essential connotations and fundamental aims. "Religion is something that absolutely cannot exist in the world of science." [27] The imprisonment and humiliation of Copernicus and Galileo by Christianity, and the obstruction of the popularization of Darwinian theory, are irrefutable evidence of how theism hinders scientific progress. Even if some scientists believe in God or religion, superstition in theism will ultimately become an obstacle to scientific research.
Second, Yun Daiying pointed out that theism is unhelpful for rational thinking. Theists superstitiously believe that the world was created by an omnipotent deity who rules over all things and governs the operation of all natural and social laws. He pointed out: "If a person truly believes that [a deity] is an objective reality, it will always hinder the progress of our intellect." [28] In his view, once one falls into the superstition of theistic accounts of God creating man and the world, one easily loses the motivation for deep rational reflection, leading to rigid thinking and stagnant ideas. "If it has already been affirmed that these things were created by God, what else is there to research?" [29] He asserted that theism, by using "various deities as explanations, truly obstructs human evolution." [30] Therefore, scientific workers should be thorough atheists and must not allow superstition regarding God, ghosts, or spirits to affect the degree of their rationality or the depth of their thinking on problems.
(5) Proposing methods and approaches for dealing with religious theism
Engels pointed out: "With the advance of science... the whole of the infinite realm of nature is conquered by science, leaving no room for the Creator." [31] Based on reality, Yun Daiying proposed methods and approaches to correctly handle religious theism, continuously promoting the spread and development of atheism and effectively facilitating the eradication of feudal superstition.
First, guiding religion to adapt to social development. The rise and flourishing of religion underwent a long process, and its disappearance will also be a protracted process. As Marx stated: "The religious reflex of the real world can, in any case, only then finally vanish, when the practical relations of every-day life offer to man none but perfectly intelligible and reasonable relations with regard to his fellowmen and to Nature." [32] Yun Daiying believed that although the disappearance of religion possesses objective historical necessity, it will by no means occur with the speed of a violent storm; religion will continue to exist and even develop for a long time. Therefore, only by actively guiding religion to adapt to social development, effectively exerting its positive roles, and curbing its negative roles, can we seek benefits while avoiding harm and promote its healthy development. To begin with, guide Western religions to achieve independence and break free from the control of imperialism. He stated frankly: "Regarding the independence movement of the church, rather than opposing it, we advocate and support it." [33] He believed that Western religions were introduced on a large scale during the invasion of China by the Great Powers, carrying a heavy colonial color and being easily manipulated by imperialism to become appendages of Western missionary societies. Therefore, it is necessary to carry out a church independence movement and implement a religious policy of self-governance, self-preaching, and self-support. Yun Daiying particularly supported the independence movement of Christianity, stating that "if Christianity can avoid having a relationship with imperialism... there is no need to specifically exclude it." [34] It is necessary to enable Christian churches and mission schools to achieve political, economic, and religious independence, just like Buddhism, Taoism, and Islam, and to shake off labels such as "foreign religion" or "living off the faith." [35] Furthermore, guide religious practitioners to treat religion with rationality. In his view, whether one believes in religion is closely related to one's level of knowledge; shallow horizons, impoverished thinking, and spiritual emptiness are important reasons why the Chinese populace believes in religion. He said: "For those without knowledge or with simple knowledge, since their knowledge is insufficient to recognize morality, they lean on faith or even religion for support." [36] In other words, only people with wisdom and thought can consciously fulfill moral obligations and thus avoid falling into the religious quagmire. Therefore, one must "enlighten them with education to make them wise, and train them to love it [morality] so that it becomes a healing force, with wisdom to guide their behavior." [37] This will lead practitioners to believe in religion rationally and put an end to excessive religious fanaticism or blind worship of deities. In short, by guiding Western religions to achieve independence and guiding practitioners to approach religion rationally, a healthy and harmonious religious atmosphere can be created, effectively promoting the coordination and adaptation of religion to social development.
Second, carrying out atheist propaganda and education. In modern China, where the study of gods and ghosts was prevalent, "evil winds" [38] and rumors were everywhere, and people’s hearts were unsettled, atheist propaganda and education held great practical value for opposing religious theology, eradicating religious superstition, and stabilizing society and the public mind. Yun Daiying firmly believed that there are no deities or ghosts in the world, that theism is an absurd and groundless discourse, and that the replacement of theism by atheism is an inevitable trend of historical development. He pointed out: "Almost every scholar in the world who possesses any degree of thought wishes to advocate atheism... while those things that the world's people are startled into regarding as divine are all fabrications created out of thin air." [39] He vigorously refuted the false arguments of theists and advocated for strengthening atheist propaganda and education to promote the wide dissemination of atheist concepts and their deep rooting in the people's hearts. By publishing a series of articles and speeches criticizing and opposing religious theism, he deeply analyzed the reasons for the emergence of theism, exposed its false essence and serious harms, and powerfully criticized idealistic theories regarding deities and ghosts, continuously deepening and expanding the work of atheist propaganda and education. In his view, only by actively propagating atheism and fully awakening, catalyzing, and shaping the atheist concepts of the masses—making even a "three-foot child" [40] know that there are no gods in the world—could the social soil upon which theism breeds be completely cleared, achieving the goal of gradually eliminating heterodox theories of ghosts and gods and breaking the shackles of theocracy.
Third, disseminating and popularizing scientific knowledge. The dissemination and popularization of scientific knowledge is an effective way to resist religious theism. As Engels pointed out: "The history of science is the history of the gradual clearing away of this ignorance." [41] Facing the situation in modern times where theistic theories and religious concepts were spreading and harming the people, intellectuals like Yun Daiying launched an atheist movement, regarding the popularization of scientific truth as an important means of eradicating superstition. He believed that a lack of understanding of science was the main reason for the superstition in ghosts and gods; as long as the dissemination and popularization of scientific knowledge were strengthened and mysterious phenomena were explained clearly through science, the interference of theism could be effectively avoided. He pointed out: "In the past, when we suddenly saw lightning striking a person, we thought it was governed by a god. Today, those who have slightly studied physics all clearly understand that there is no god involved. In the past, when we suddenly saw a solar or lunar eclipse, we also thought it was governed by a god; today, those who have slightly studied astronomy also clearly understand that there is no god involved." [42] In his view, the assertion that there are gods and ghosts would be defeated by science; all so-called ghostly phenomena would be solved by science in the future, and the correctness of atheism would eventually be proven. He said: "Since we have learned a bit about the evolution of the universe, we naturally cannot believe the religious legends of the creation of the world; since we have learned a bit about the evolution of organisms, we naturally cannot believe the religious legends of the creation of humanity." [43] Therefore, he advocated for the wide dissemination and popularization of scientific knowledge among the people, mobilizing the masses to actively learn, discuss, and believe in science, using science to arm their minds against religious superstition. He led by example, disseminating scientific concepts and popularizing knowledge of physics, chemistry, and biology through writing articles, founding magazines, and teaching courses; he introduced the theoretical achievements of scientists such as Newton, Darwin, and Einstein, guiding people to establish scientific thinking and oppose superstitious blind following.
Fourth, breaking through the shackles of feudal superstitious ideology. Feudal superstitious ideology has eroded people's souls and corrupted their will for thousands of years. Yun Daiying pointed out: "Customs change people, and even the virtuous cannot avoid it." [44] In his view, feudal superstitious ideology was deep-rooted and particularly harmful; once one falls into the ruts of feudal superstition, one is swept along and unable to extricate oneself, becoming increasingly superstitious and paranoid. The degree to which Chinese people were persecuted by feudal superstitious ideology had reached an unsurpassed level. Just as he proposed that "without breaking the current social economic system, women will never be able to reach a position of independence and freedom," [45] it is difficult to completely sweep away feudal superstitious ideology without realizing a transformation of the social system. Therefore, he advocated, on one hand, for the development of a New Culture [46], the dissemination of new ideas, the promotion of new morality, and the carrying out of a thorough movement for ideological liberation to continuously discard feudal superstitious concepts; on the other hand, he advocated for the transformation of the political and economic system to shred the "protective charms" [47] of feudal superstitious ideology. This was because, in Yun Daiying's view, reactionary forces such as feudal warlords and imperialism were essentially "badgers from the same mound" [48] as feudal superstition. Their reactionary rule was the root cause of the prevalence of feudal superstitious ideology. Only by launching a revolution to overthrow them and breaking the decayed superstructure could the shackles of feudal superstitious ideology be shattered, effectively stopping its spread and allowing people to obtain spiritual liberation and intellectual freedom.
III. Historical Evaluation of Yun Daiying’s Atheist Thought
Yun Daiying’s atheist thought expounded theoretical perspectives on atheism and proposed methods for handling religious theism. It effectively pulled back the veil of religious mysticism, promoted the dissemination and development of atheism, and greatly enriched Marxist atheist thought. However, due to the constraints of the era and his historical background, his atheist thought inevitably possessed certain limitations, containing some immature views that remain subject to further discussion.
(1) The Value of Yun Daiying’s Atheist Thought
First, at the theoretical level, it effectively pulled back the veil of religious mysticism and deepened people’s theoretical understanding of religion. Because religion is shrouded in a heavy layer of mystery and possesses powerful permeability and allure, it is easy for individuals to become overly obsessed with it, placing their hopes solely on religious faith to obtain spiritual solace or supernatural power. This was especially true in modern China, where the national strength was weak, the territory was fragmented, society was in upheaval, and the people lived in hardship; in such a context, various forms of religious theism proliferated even more wantonly. Many religions spread their concepts wildly by flaunting "science," which "whipped up a craze in intellectual circles for beautifying and reviving religion." [49] Some cult organizations used religion as a gimmick to blast out theories of the immortality of the soul and the existence of ghosts and gods, secretly organizing illegal religious activities. Additionally, many people dissatisfied with social reality used religious theology to anesthetize themselves, leading the religious population to grow larger and more complex in its composition. Yun Daiying not only published incisive insights on the nature, origin, function, and disappearance of religion—directly exposing the hypocritical face of religious theology and revealing the complex process of its formation, development, and evolution along with its social roots—but also used Marxist atheism as an intellectual fulcrum to fundamentally deny the existence of God and spirits. This greatly deepened people's understanding of religion, effectively struck at the arrogance of stubborn religious forces, and provided an important theoretical reference for breaking religious fanaticism and resolving religious issues.
Second, in practice, it effectively promoted the dissemination of scientific truth and curtailed the breeding and spread of theism. As an atheist, Yun repeated emphasized that ghosts and gods were subjective fabrications of man. He opposed the culture of ghosts and gods and the "wind of shamanism" [50], repeatedly refuting the absurd claim that "there are gods three feet above one's head" [51]. He severely criticized feudal culture regarding ghosts and gods and the concept of spirit worship, profoundly revealing their true nature as tools for shackling the mind and distorting perspectives. He stated: "When I observe past history, I would rather believe there are no gods." [52] On one hand, Yun vigorously promoted natural scientific knowledge such as cell theory, biological evolution, and the law of universal gravitation, introducing the working principles and advantages of machines like elevators and steam engines to guide people in disseminating scientific knowledge, practicing scientific concepts, and establishing atheist views. On the other hand, by proposing methods for dealing with religious theism—such as guiding religion to adapt to social development, conducting atheist propaganda and education, and breaking the shackles of feudal superstitious thought—he called on the people to actively struggle against concepts of ghosts and gods and superstitious phenomena, continuously breaking the spiritual fetters of theism. His series of ideological perspectives analyzing feudal superstition can be described as penetrating and profound. They deeply analyzed the illusory nature and harmfulness of feudal superstition, effectively stripped away the false veil covering theism, and allowed people to see clearly the ugly face of theism in poisoning and deluding the people. This played an important role in leading social trends, popularizing scientific truth, and breaking feudal superstitious thoughts, pointing out the practical direction and providing practical standards for curbing the spread of theism.
Third, intellectually, it promoted the development of atheism and enriched Marxist atheist doctrine. After the May Fourth Movement [53], various social trends such as socialism, the New Village Movement [54], and liberalism arrived in rapid succession, spreading widely among Chinese intellectuals. Yun Daiying chose to believe in socialism and firmly supported and believed in Marxist atheism. In 1920, he pointed out in On Socialism: "The future of the world... should belong to socialism of coexistence and mutual aid." [55] Yun not only actively publicized and introduced the theoretical viewpoints of Marxist atheism, accelerating its dissemination and popularization, but also continuously studied the intellectual essence of Marxist atheism. He actively applied Marxist atheism to explain issues related to Chinese religious theology and feudal superstition, forming an atheist thought with distinct characteristics and a clear main theme based on national conditions. By analyzing the fundamental questions of religion, expounding the concept of freedom of religious belief, clarifying the difference between religious faith and scientific faith, and evaluating the relationship between theism and scientific development, he effectively promoted the development of atheism. He pushed forward the Sinicization of Marxist atheism, greatly enriched Marxist atheist thought, and significantly enhanced the influence of Marxist atheist doctrine at the time.
(2) The Limitations of Yun Daiying’s Atheist Thought
First, the development of Yun Daiying’s atheist thought lacked theoretical consistency and integration. In modern times, China suffered under the iron heel of Western powers and faced the danger of national subjugation. To seek a path for national salvation, advanced intellectuals introduced various Western theories, leading to a period where "mud and sand were washed down together" [56] in the intellectual field. To a certain extent, Yun was negatively influenced by empiricism, positivism, and Kantian idealism. He did not fully absorb or digest Marxist atheism, and his understanding of atheism lacked consistency and integration, resulting in atheist views that were inconsistent or even self-contradictory. On one hand, he claimed to advocate for and believe in atheism; on the other hand, he stated, "as for the existence or non-existence of heavenly gods, it is certainly not something a person of shallow knowledge would dare to speak of recklessly." [57] It is not difficult to see that he may have harbored subjective illusions regarding theism, leaving room for maneuver during his critiques. His defense of atheism still needed strengthening, which led to atheist views that were not only evasive and sophistic at times but also mixed with idealistic elements such as "Heaven" (Tian) and "the Way" (Dao). As he said: "Only those who illuminate the truth (zhuli) know that the world has gods; likewise, only those who illuminate the truth know that the world has no gods." [58] "The Way is the Way, and gods are gods. If gods accord with the Way, I believe in the Way and I also believe in gods. If gods depart from the Way, I believe in the Way and I do not believe in gods." [59] This reflects from a side profile that Yun could never completely escape the influence of traditional schools of thought such as Taoism and Confucianism when understanding the question of atheism. Although he strove to use Marxist atheism to explain issues of religious theism, he sometimes remained unable to leap out of the preset frameworks of Taoism and Confucianism. Furthermore, he struggled to integrate traditional thought with Marxist atheism to analyze religious theistic issues, leading to flaws and contradictions in his atheist thought.
Second, Yun’s view of Christianity was insufficiently rational and dialectical. Yun Daiying held metaphysical judgments regarding Western religion, especially Christianity, and lacked a comprehensive and fair understanding of it, making his system of atheist thought somewhat unrefined and immature. Although "religion often served as a tool for 'cultural aggression'" [60] during the colonial expansion of the powers, playing a disgraceful role in serving capitalist colonial expansion, this does not mean one should entirely negate or even harbor hatred toward Christianity and its believers. He repeatedly emphasized that Christianity was a tool for imperialism to invade China and soften the Chinese people—that Christianity and the foreign powers were "snakes and rats in the same hole" [61], colluding for evil ends; that Christians relied on foreigners to gain promotion and wealth, and foreigners relied on Christians to seize China’s rights. In December 1923, he stated bluntly in Why Do We Oppose Christianity?: "Every additional Christian is one more foreign lackey." [62] In May 1926, during a speech at Lingnan University, he pointed out: "Christians have prayed for over two thousand years, yet we do not see the world prayed into a better state; instead, all these imperialists and warlords have been prayed into existence." [63] To be sure, his understanding of Christianity was a critique based on objective reality and had a certain factual basis, but it undeniably carried emotional, absolute, and radical evaluations triggered by nationalist grief and indignation. To a certain extent, he demonized Christianity and magnified its dark side, even classifying Chinese Christians into the ranks of the enemy without distinction. He one-sidedly shifted the contradiction between the Chinese nation and imperialism toward Christianity and its believers. It is evident that he understood the issue of Christianity more within a revolutionary context, even attributing the reason for opposing Christianity to its lack of revolutionary character and its consequent inability to save China from its predicament at the time. All of this was somewhat biased.
IV. Conclusion
Yun Daiying was an eminent early revolutionary leader of the Communist Party of China and a pioneer in the development of atheism in modern China. He systematically expounded innovative atheist viewpoints, provided a theoretical reference for the development of atheism, and pointed out the practical direction for breaking superstition and disenchanting religion. He effectively promoted the deepening and expansion of Chinese atheism, vigorously pushed forward the Sinicization of Marxist atheist thought, and greatly enriched and developed Marxist atheist doctrine. Engels pointed out: "The theoretical thinking of every age... is a historical product." [64] Limited by the era, history, and various other reasons, Yun Daiying’s atheist thought could hardly be perfect and contained some flaws and shortcomings. However, people today cannot scrutinize and demand perfection from him from a contemporary perspective. His atheist thought already contained many insights that transcended that era and remain inspiring today. Deeply understanding the developmental trajectory and main connotations of Yun Daiying’s atheist thought, and accurately assessing its value and limitations, is not only beneficial for the research and development of Marxist atheist thought today but can also provide a certain reference for the handling of religious issues and the eradication of superstition.