Ren Baolong and Zhong Juan: The Compilation Background, Atheistic Implications, and Practical Lessons of "Stories About Not Being Afraid of Ghosts"
Published in the 1960s, Stories of Not Being Afraid of Ghosts (Bupa gui de gushi) is a collection of tales personally commissioned and edited with the participation of Mao Zedong. Selected from folk stories found in various historical Chinese bijī [1] fiction collections, the book saw a cumulative print run of over 200,000 copies and exerted a profound influence. It is unified by the central theme of "not being afraid of ghosts." On one hand, it inspired the people of the whole country to struggle against the "monsters and demons"—namely US imperialism, Indian reactionaries, and Soviet revisionism [2]. On the other hand, it praised the courage and wisdom of men of ambition, knowledge, and tactical skill throughout history who identified, fought, and struck down ghosts, thereby using these tales to shatter superstition and propagate Marxist atheism. Clarifying the background of the creation of Stories of Not Being Afraid of Ghosts and grasping the atheistic thought contained therein is of significant reference value for carrying out atheist propaganda and education in the New Era and for consolidating the guiding position of Marxism in the ideological field.
I. The Background of the Compilation of Stories of Not Being Afraid of Ghosts
From the mid-to-late 1950s to the early 1960s, the domestic and international situation underwent significant changes, marked by turbulence and setbacks. China faced multi-faceted and complex security threats, encountering resistance and challenges from many sides. Internationally, following the 20th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU), divergences emerged between the Chinese and Soviet parties regarding ideology and policy lines within the international communist movement. Simultaneously, Western imperialism, led by the United States, intensified its blockade, encirclement, and sanctions against China, intending to subvert the newborn People’s Republic. Domestically, with the establishment of the basic socialist system, the Party faced the even more arduous task of consolidating and developing socialism. Furthermore, vestiges of the old society—such as fengshui and astrology, exorcism and spirit-summoning, divination and fortune-telling, physiognomy, and religious worship—persisted. The consciousness of some people remained fettered by backward, ignorant, and superstitious thoughts regarding ghosts and gods.
What kind of mental state was required to confront the "horde of ghosts" in the international "anti-China chorus"? How could the people be liberated from the shackles of ghost-and-god superstition? Comrade Mao Zedong turned his gaze toward classical Chinese literature. Mao not only frequently recounted stories from ancient novels about people who were unafraid of ghosts—praising protagonists who dared to scold, expel, strike, and capture them—but was also adept at "making the past serve the present." After a long period of reflection and distillation, Mao Zedong decided to select relevant chapters from ancient works of the "strange and anomalous" (zhīguài and zhìyì) [3] to compile a literary collection of "stories of not being afraid of ghosts." He sought to use ghosts as an allegory to inspire the Chinese people and the people of the world to be unafraid of evil and ghosts, and to foster a heroic spirit of daring to struggle and daring to win.
Starting in the spring of 1959, Mao Zedong shared stories of not being afraid of ghosts on multiple occasions with various audiences. On April 15, 1959, while briefing the 16th Supreme State Conference on the domestic situation and the Taiwan issue, Mao cited the story "The Mad Scholar Sitting at Night" (Kuangsheng yezuo) from Strange Tales from a Chinese Studio (Liǎozhāi zhìyì) [4]. This was his first public telling of such a story: "In Strange Tales from a Chinese Studio, there is a mad scholar who is sitting and reading at night when a ghost tries to scare him... The author tells us: do not be afraid of ghosts. The more you fear them, the less you will be able to live; the ghost will rush in and devour you." In Mao’s view, all enemies, opponents, and difficulties could be likened to "ghosts"; only by not fearing them could one defeat and overcome them. On May 6 of the same year, while receiving delegations and diplomats from eleven countries including the Soviet Union and Poland, he again cited the "Mad Scholar" story and spoke publicly on the issue of not fearing ghosts: "Some people in the world are afraid of ghosts, and some are not. Is it better to be afraid or not? There are stories in Chinese novels about people who are not afraid of ghosts. I imagine there are such stories in your novels too. I want to compile a small booklet of these stories. Experience proves that ghosts cannot be feared. The more you fear them, the more they appear; if you don’t fear them, they cease to exist." He then recounted another story from Strange Tales about Geng Qubing, who, while reading at night, painted his face and stuck out his tongue to stare back at a ghost. Later, while meeting a delegation from the People’s Chamber of the German Democratic Republic and discussing Tibet and Sino-Indian relations, he returned to the theme: "Do not fear ghosts. That is how ghosts are: the more you fear them, the more there are; if you don't fear them, they are gone. Do you have material in German literature showing that some fear ghosts while others do not?" In this speech, Mao categorized capitalism, Nazism (Hitler), and feudalism (Yuan Shikai and the Qing emperors) as "ghosts."
Guided by Mao Zedong’s thought on "not being afraid of ghosts," the preparation, selection, and publication of the book proceeded smoothly. The task was assigned to the Institute of Literature of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (now CASS), with Director He Qifang in direct charge. The Institute convened numerous experts and scholars to collectively select and transcribe stories of being unafraid of ghosts from ancient bijī fiction, compiling them into a volume to serve as a tool for political and ideological struggle. By the summer of 1959, after three months of editing, reviewing, and revising, the book was essentially complete. During the process, Mao Zedong maintained a close interest, personally attending to everything from the selection of entries to the refinement of the preface. In 1960, Mao instructed He Qifang to further select and enrich the draft, add detailed annotations, and write a formal preface. He Qifang revised the draft several times, eventually producing a preface of nearly 10,000 characters. On January 4 and January 23, 1961, Mao met with He Qifang twice specifically to discuss and supplement the revisions of the preface. In a directive following the second review, Mao noted: "Before printing, please send the galley proofs to comrades Liu [Shaoqi], Zhou [Enlai], Deng [Xiaoping], Zhou Yang, and Guo Moruo for their review and to see if they have any further suggestions." After the preface was finalized, Mao requested that upon the book's release, the preface be published in Qiushi (then Red Flag) and the People’s Daily. He also ordered the book translated into several foreign languages—translating the preface first—with the English version prioritized for publication in Beijing Review.
After repeated revisions and proofreading, Stories of Not Being Afraid of Ghosts was published by the People’s Literature Publishing House in February 1961. The first edition used vertical layout and traditional characters, containing 70 selected entries for reading by Party members and cadres. It was reprinted in October of the same year with the preface in large type and the selection adjusted to 66 entries for promotion to the general public. The People’s Literature Publishing House continued to reprint and revise the book in 1978, 1982, and 1999.
This thin volume of classical literature, featuring dozens of stories of wits and courage pitted against specters, vividly depicts diverse individuals overcoming ghosts. Its content reflects the ancient people's irreverence toward the "fearsome" ghost and their dauntless spirit in scolding, striking, and capturing them. It played a positive role in unifying the Party's thinking and strengthening confidence in overcoming difficulties.
II. The Atheistic Thought Contained in Stories of Not Being Afraid of Ghosts
As a collection of allegorical stories for the masses, Stories of Not Being Afraid of Ghosts disseminated atheist education while accurately meeting the spiritual and cultural needs of the people. Reading it as a classic document of atheist propaganda reveals rich atheist ideas, such as "there are no ghosts in the world," "the more one fears ghosts, the more they exist; if one does not fear them, they cease to exist," and "as long as one despises the enemy strategically while taking them seriously tactically, one can defeat the ghosts."
(1) "There are no ghosts in the world"
The emergence of idealist concepts like ghost-and-god discourse is a phantom and distorted reflection of objective existence, occurring when humans cannot yet scientifically understand natural and social phenomena. In the early years of the People's Republic, because the level of productive forces was low, the material soil upon which feudal superstition rested had not been completely uprooted. Combined with the low scientific and cultural literacy of the people, "fearing ghosts" and "believing in gods" persisted. The very first sentence of the preface to Stories of Not Being Afraid of Ghosts states clearly: "There are no ghosts in the world. Belief in ghosts is a backward idea, a superstition, and a manifestation of cowardice." This directly informs the reader that ghosts do not exist and that indulgence in such discourse is a mark of backwardness.
On one hand, the book highlights that "there are no ghosts in the world" by overcoming the illusion of ghosts caused by human fear. The story "Wang Jia is Not Afraid of Ghosts," from Zhang Chao’s Qing-dynasty collection New Records of Yu Chu, tells of Wang Jia writing under a lamp late at night when he "suddenly heard a mournful ghost-cry outside the window." He thought to himself: "I have committed no evil; the vengeful spirit of Peng Sheng [5] surely would not afflict me. Why should I fear an ugly demon?" He lit a torch to investigate and found the sound coming from a bamboo grove. It was merely "a fallen leaf caught in a spider’s web; the wind blowing through the gaps made the sound." After hearing the sharp, piercing cry, the reader is led into a scene thick with eerie atmosphere. But Wang Jia is not paralyzed by fear; he leads the reader to discover that the "ghastly" sound was merely wind through a leaf. The suspense is resolved, the reader's doubts are dispelled, and the theme that ghosts do not exist becomes clear.
On the other hand, it highlights this truth by eliminating misunderstandings caused by "vigorous vital energy" (qì). The story "Bleached Bones," from Guo Tuan’s Song-dynasty Sequel to the Records of the Records of the Overshadowed Carriage, tells of a Mr. Liu who encounters bones in a cave. "As Liu sat up to look closer, the bones suddenly rose and rushed forward to embrace him. Liu struck out with all his might, and the bones fell to the ground in pieces, never moving again." Later, when Liu told the story, someone remarked: "This was no monster. Your vital energy (zhenqi) was simply so robust that it magnetically attracted the dry bones. It is like when children put a chicken feather in their robe and move their finger up and down to make it follow; once the feather breaks, it no longer responds. This is the same principle." By using a common children’s game to explain the mechanism of the bones’ movement, the story provides a vivid atheist lesson, exposing the absurdity of monsters and the vanity of superstition. It resolves confusion over strange events that exceed immediate perception and affirms the truth that ghosts do not exist.
(2) The more you fear ghosts, the more they exist; if you don't fear them, they are gone
In the preface, Mao Zedong emphasized: "Could it be that the more we fear 'ghosts,' the more they will like us, show mercy, and refrain from harming us? Will our cause suddenly become smooth, and everything turn bright and blooming?" In fact, the opposite is true. The book uses a large number of engaging, dialectical allegories to inspire the reader through the comparison of the different outcomes of fearing versus not fearing ghosts. If one is cowardly and the mind is not emancipated, one will fear even non-existent gods and ghosts. But if consciousness is raised, superstition is shattered, and the mind is liberated, then gods and ghosts are not scary at all—without fear, there are no ghosts.
For instance, the story "The Monk Shanxiao of Shu," from Sun Guangxian’s Five Dynasties collection Fragmentary Earthly Talk from the North, describes how the common people lived in terror of the Mountain God of Bishan, slaughtering countless livestock as sacrifices every year. Shanxiao, a monk from Western Shu, was outraged at the killing of plow-oxen for sacrifice and rebuked the clay idol: "The sacrifices to Heaven and Earth follow proper rites; how can this ghost usurp the status of Heaven and Earth? The ox is the capital of farming; is it not a crime for you to demand its sacrifice?" He then smashed several idols with an axe. The story contrasts the "shattered state of the prefecture" (the people’s initial shock) with the fact that the "monk remained perfectly unharmed." This highlights that breaking superstitious customs like idol worship does not result in being haunted by supernatural forces, thereby exposing the falsity of ghosts and the vanity of the superstitious systems surrounding them.
Similarly, "Ai Zi," from Su Shi’s Song-dynasty Ai Zi’s Miscellaneous Sayings, records Ai Zi observing one man who "took the statue of the Great King, laid it across a ditch to act as a bridge, stepped on it, and left." Another man, seeing this, "propped it up, wiped it with his clothes, placed it back on its pedestal, bowed twice, and left." Ultimately, because "the first man already did not believe, the ghost did not dare harm him," and the ghost could only "inflict harm on the one who came after." By recording two characters with diametrically opposed attitudes toward an idol, the story underscores the essence of the collection: ghosts can do nothing to those who do not believe in them, whereas those who believe are the ones who suffer their harm.
(3) As long as one despises the enemy strategically while taking them seriously tactically, one can defeat the ghosts
The thought regarding strategy and tactics is a scientific crystallization formed by the proletarian revolutionaries with Mao Zedong at the core, who combined Marxist-Leninist truth with the specific practice of the Chinese Revolution. In January 1961, when Mao met with He Qifang to discuss the preface, he stated clearly: "Besides strategic contempt, we must talk about tactical importance. Regarding specific ghosts, one by one, we must conduct specific analysis, pay attention to tactics, and take them seriously. Otherwise, they cannot be defeated." Despising ghosts strategically is a form of courage, manifesting fearlessness; respecting ghosts tactically is a skill, manifesting great wisdom.
Stories About Not Being Afraid of Ghosts recounts a vast number of tales in which people dare to struggle against ghosts, excel at such struggles, and further defeat them after seeing through their tricks. These stories inspire and encourage the public to strategically despise ghosts while tactically taking them seriously—only then can ghosts be defeated. For example, "Song Dingbo Catches a Ghost" from the Lieyi Zhuan [6] tells of a young Song Dingbo who meets a ghost while walking at night. Faced with the ghost's suspicious inquiries—"You are so heavy; are you perhaps not a ghost?" and "Why do you make such a noise [when crossing water]?"—Song Dingbo skillfully dispels its doubts and wins its trust by claiming, "I am a new ghost, that is why my body is heavy," and "Having died only recently, I am not yet practiced at wading through water." Furthermore, under the guise of avoiding a "new ghost's" taboos, he probes for the ghost’s fatal weakness—"only a dislike of human spit"—eventually capturing it and selling it for money.
Another example is "Zhang De Binds a Ghost" from Liu Fu’s Hanfu Mingtan [7] of the Northern Song Dynasty. Because "monsters appeared every night at the South Chigang Inn," "travelers were terrified and dared not pass." Yet "De was inherently courageous"; he "seized its two feet and bound them to his waist with rope. After walking several miles, the old woman [the ghost's form] pleaded, 'Put me down!' De did not respond. The old woman begged piteously, and eventually her voice became very low and her body light. Upon reaching the next post-house, he held her up to look: it was merely a piece of a rotten old coffin board. He burned it, and the stench traveled for miles amid chirping sounds, and thus the monster was eradicated."
Similarly, in "Chen Zaigheng," selected from Volume I of Huang Junzai’s Jinhu Qimo [8] from the Qing Dynasty, Chen Zaiheng is walking in the countryside at night when he sees "two people" using a fire to light their pipes but failing for a long time. One asks, "Sir, has your first seven-day period passed yet?" [9] Upon hearing "first seven," Chen immediately realized he had encountered two ghosts. Realizing they took him for a ghost as well, he played along to test them: "'Proverbially, men fear ghosts; is this true?' The ghosts replied, 'No, ghosts actually fear men.' Chen said, 'What is there to fear about men?' They replied, 'We fear spitting.' Chen immediately took a deep breath and spat at them... after three spits, they vanished."
There are many more stories in Stories About Not Being Afraid of Ghosts depicting protagonists who despise ghosts spiritually while remaining cautious and resourceful in specific encounters. Through progressive descriptions of meeting, tricking, catching, fighting, and killing ghosts, these allegories praise the ingenuity and courage of the protagonists. They recreate heroic images of those with both guts and wisdom, skilled in strategy and brave in capture. They propagate the truth that ghosts and monsters are not to be feared: if one is ideologically unafraid of superstition and dares to break it; if one has the courage to strategically despise it without fear; and if one uses resourcefulness to tactically take it seriously by studying ways to overcome difficulties and identifying the ghost's weaknesses, then one will inevitably repel the ghosts or even turn them to one’s own use in the struggle between man and ghost.
III. Practical Lessons of Stories About Not Being Afraid of Ghosts for Atheist Publicity and Education in the New Era
While atheist publicity and education in the New Era have made gratifying progress, the "season of bright spring and gentle breezes" has not yet arrived. The overall force remains relatively weak, and a complete "atheist ecosystem" [10] has not yet been established. One frequently encounters difficulties and disruptions caused by various "ghosts." Therefore, drawing lessons from and carrying forward the atheist thought contained in Stories About Not Being Afraid of Ghosts is of significant practical importance for doing a good job in atheist publicity and education in the New Era and for consolidating the guiding role of Marxism in the ideological sphere.
(i) Daring to struggle: Publicizing Marxist atheism with a clear-cut stand
The preface to Stories About Not Being Afraid of Ghosts points out: "As long as people are not afraid of ghosts, dare to despise them, and dare to strike them, then ghosts will fear people." "Not being afraid of ghosts" can serve not only as a metaphor for strategically despising religious superstition and other ghost-and-spirit theories but also as an expanded metaphor for all seemingly terrifying but actually harmless things encountered in the development of atheist publicity and education. In view of this—faced with new challenges of the massive and fragmented nature of theistic thought in the information society, and the spread of various domestic and foreign religious forces, especially ignorant superstitious activities and religious extremist thought—we must continue to carry forward the spirit that "there are no ghosts in the world." We must remain clear-headed and firm in our stance on major issues of right and wrong, dare to struggle, and publicize Marxist atheism with a clear-cut stand.
First, we must attach great importance to atheist publicity and education. As a thorough and scientific atheism, Marxist atheism profoundly reveals that there are no supernatural or extra-social mystical powers in the world, and "sets forth the existence of man through this very negation." In a sense, Marxist research, publicity, and education inherently contain atheist positions, viewpoints, and methods. However, this does not mean that everyone immersed in the scientific truths of Marxism immediately masters atheism as an ideological weapon. Therefore, we must strictly avoid substituting general Marxist education for atheist publicity and education. Nor should we, amid the gratifying rapid development of the professionalization of Marxist disciplines, believe that discussing atheism is "superfluous ink" (fubi langmo). Instead, we must actively conduct atheist education to crowd out and eventually eradicate the living space for ghost-and-spirit superstitions, gradually eliminating the ideological and social foundations for the emergence and spread of theism.
Second, we must firmly grasp the two major targets of atheist publicity and education. Party members and leading cadres, as the backbone of the cause of socialism with Chinese characteristics, are the key targets; youth, as the fresh force and main army of the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation, are the primary targets. If these two groups lack thorough and firm belief in Marxist atheism, become captives of religious deities, lose their ideals and convictions, or vainly pin their hopes on an illusory "heavenly kingdom," then the mainstream ideology will inevitably be in danger, thereby jeopardizing political and institutional security. Therefore, it is absolutely unacceptable to harbor a fluke mentality or leave room for retreat in atheist education. We must be daring and adept at conducting atheist publicity and education among Party members, cadres, and youth, liberating these two major groups from the shackles of various forms of theism, enabling them to master their own destinies and consciously become firm believers and practitioners of Marxist atheism.
(ii) Rooting in fine traditional Chinese culture: Mining resources for atheist education
In the sixth collective study session of the Political Bureau of the CPC Central Committee, General Secretary Xi Jinping pointed out: "We must persist in rooting the development of Marxism in the fertile soil of our own country and nation's history and culture... adhere to the principle of making the past serve the present and weeding through the old to bring forth the new, and use Marxism as a guide to comprehensively mine the 5,000-plus-year treasure house of Chinese civilization." Atheist publicity and education are no exception. Fine traditional Chinese culture contains rich resources for atheist education; mining these "civilizational treasure houses" under the guidance of Marxism is an important task for Marxist atheist education in the New Era. Just as Stories About Not Being Afraid of Ghosts used "not being afraid of ghosts" as its main thread to systematically comb through ghost stories from the Jin to the late Qing dynasties—selecting over 70 allegorical stories whose content could merge with the contemporary reality—it empowered the atheist resources within traditional Chinese ghost tales to radiate new vitality.
On one hand, we must deeply mine and systematically organize the atheist resources within traditional culture to enrich the content of atheist education in the New Era. Whether using key figures as points, dynastic successions as lines, or different schools of thought as planes, we should systematically organize atheist thought in traditional culture and construct a traditional cultural resource bank with "the absence of gods" as its primary thread. On the other hand, we must focus on activating excellent elements in traditional culture through the demands of the times to optimize the supply of resources for atheist education. The Chinese concepts of "doing one's utmost in human affairs" (jin renshi) [11] and "following nature" (fa ziran) [12] contain very clear atheist orientations, providing strength to break free from the fetters of ghosts, gods, and other mystical powers. If these value orientations and ways of thinking are re-studied and re-reflected upon through the practical circumstances of the New Journey [13] in the New Era, their atheist concepts can be activated, empowering new content with a new paradigm.
(iii) Enriching external forms: Innovating the discourse expression of atheist education
Eradicating ghost-and-spirit superstitions is a long-term and complex undertaking. Because of its long-term nature—wherein the internal attributes, content, and external manifestations of theism differ across periods—we must persist over the long term, exerting great effort in criticism and governance. Because of its complexity, we must enrich external forms and innovate the discourse expression of atheist education, "transcoding" atheist thought into forms that the audience is good at and willing to accept. This effectively answers deep-seated ideological and practical questions of concern to the masses, dismantling the "psychological bridge" leading them toward superstition.
On one hand, we must innovate the carriers of discourse expression for atheist education. Mao Zedong relied on the text of Stories About Not Being Afraid of Ghosts to call on the masses to "not be afraid of ghosts," which resonated with the public and achieved good results. Atheist education in the New Era should take the compilation of this text as a model, avoiding one-way indoctrination and the "floating" of rootless, dull political discourse. Instead, starting from the actual lives of the people, we should create a large number of vivid and interesting pictures, short videos, emojis/memes, and texts that align with the masses' way of thinking and cultural needs. This will close the psychological distance between atheist education and the audience, letting the masses identify with and accept atheism through "moistening things silently" [14]. On the other hand, we must enhance the art of discourse expression. Stories About Not Being Afraid of Ghosts raised the ideological awareness of the masses through vivid, readable allegories, opening a new path to solve the current discourse dilemma where "the truth cannot be spoken out" or "if spoken, it cannot be spread." This inspires New Era atheist educators to be adept at using vivid stories with profound meanings—to be able to speak "Chinese" with distinct characteristics, "home-style talk" that is concrete and rich, and "internet talk" that is vibrant. By embedding atheist thought in stories and examples, we can enhance the infectiousness and influence of atheist education, making the audience feel it is not only "meaningful" but "interesting," thereby promoting resonance, consensus, and transformation.
(iv) Applying flexible strategies: Improving the overall effectiveness of atheist education
Scientific responses to new phenomena and problems of ghost-and-spirit superstition under the new situation are basic requirements. Applying flexible strategies and tactics is the necessary path for the ultimate effectiveness of atheist education. The preface to Stories About Not Being Afraid of Ghosts also states: "Ghosts are not at all terrifying; humans are completely capable of defeating and subduing them. But for every specific ghost and every specific occasion of dealing with a ghost, one must adopt a cautious attitude and be resourceful to achieve final victory." Therefore, when faced with various ghost legends and the tricks of "playing god and playing ghost" [15] and "ghost-talk" (lies), it is not enough to simply say "don't be afraid" to solve the problem once and for all; strategically despising ghosts must always be accompanied by tactically taking them seriously.
On one hand, atheist education in the New Era must persist in a strategy focused on the whole and tactics focused on the specific. From a holistic perspective, atheist education is a scientific undertaking that conforms to the laws of nature, human society, and human thought. Ghost-and-spirit superstitions and religious dreams, as forms of social consciousness, will not exist forever; their ultimate disappearance is an inevitability of socio-historical development. From a specific perspective, every encounter between atheism and theism is a form of struggle where one waxes and the other wanes. This requires atheists to be skilled at analyzing specific educational processes, gaining a comprehensive insight into the manifestations of superstition, and breaking through its weak links. On the other hand, atheist education must persist in strategically daring to struggle and tactically being adept at struggle. In developing the theory and cause of socialism with Chinese characteristics, atheist educators are naturally "revolutionary warriors" at the front line, possessing the courage to "draw their swords" [16] against powerful enemies. Tactically, "being adept at struggle" requires an awareness of cautious warfare rather than arrogance or underestimating the enemy. We must conduct realistic research into the factors influencing the soil where theism breeds today, carrying out atheist education with an understanding of the general trend, a sense of proportion, and an emphasis on practical results. This will gradually submerge ghost-and-spirit superstitions and religious dreams in the "vast ocean of the people," causing all the "illusory ideas of God, heaven, and salvation" that dominate people's minds to collapse on their own.