Zhou Wei: An Analysis of the CPC's Religious Policies and Principles During the Chinese Civil War
Religious work is a critical undertaking concerning the mass base of the Communist Party of China (CPC). During the War of Liberation, the various Liberated Areas faced a complex situation characterized by the coexistence of diverse religions and the intertwining of multiple religious forces. Lenin pointed out: "To the party of the socialist proletariat, religion is not a private matter." Under the guidance of Marxism during the War of Liberation, the CPC formulated a series of realistic religious policies and carried out productive religious work. This not only implemented the policy of freedom of religious belief and advanced democratic reforms within religions, but also united the broad masses of religious personages and believers, thereby building consensus and strengthening forces for the founding of New China. An in-depth study of the CPC's principles and policies for handling religious issues during the War of Liberation holds significant theoretical and practical importance for enriching and developing the Party's theory of religious work in the New Era.
I. Actively Forming a People's Democratic United Front with Religious Circles
Religious personages and believers were an important force for the CPC in establishing the People's Democratic United Front [1] and completing the revolutionary tasks of anti-imperialism and anti-feudalism. By extensively uniting with religious personages and believers and actively establishing a united front with them, the CPC continuously guided religious circles to align with the revolutionary cause, effectively strengthening the forces for establishing New China.
(i) Condemning the Kuomintang authorities' suppression of religious personages and believers
After the end of the War of Resistance Against Japanese Aggression, China’s people were destitute, the economy was in depression, and society was riddled with scars. To maintain their autocratic rule, the Kuomintang (KMT) reactionaries disregarded the needs of the people's livelihood and employed bloody and violent means to suppress social organizations, including religious groups, in an attempt to delay their "downfall." Some religious personages and believers suffered greatly under the oppression of the KMT reactionaries, living in deep distress.
Facing the KMT reactionaries' suppression of religious circles, the CPC did not stand by. Instead, it responded promptly to the voices of religious circles, actively fought to safeguard their legitimate rights and interests, and continuously criticized and condemned the KMT through newspapers and public statements. In March 1948, under the pretext of "investigating the Eighth Route Army," the Peace Preservation Corps [2] of Xintang Town, Liangcheng County, Suiyuan Province, extorted and robbed local religious personages and believers. "Believers such as Xu Shijiu committed suicide because they could not pay the grain taxes," "the chapel was turned into a meeting room for the bandit army," and "nuns were driven to Jining by the bandit army, leaving behind only some twenty dying orphans, widows, and the elderly." In November of the same year, the CPC published a detailed report on this incident in the People’s Daily, exposing and condemning the shameless acts of the KMT army in plundering religious personages and believers.
It must be noted that during this process, the CPC did not blindly adopt a "one-size-fits-all" supportive attitude toward all religious groups; rather, it implemented precise policies based on actual conditions. For religious forces colluding with KMT reactionaries, imperialism, and feudalism, it adopted a strategy of direct strikes. For religious groups that consistently stood with the people and maintained close cooperation with the CPC, it adopted a strategy of active guidance and extensive unity. For religious personages and believers who maintained a wait-and-see attitude, it adopted strategies of policy guidance and organizational education. These efforts not only helped religious personages and believers recognize the true nature of the KMT reactionaries but also continuously enhanced their affinity for the CPC, creating favorable conditions for the Party to form a People's Democratic United Front with religious circles.
(ii) Permitting religious personages and believers to join trade unions and peasant associations
Religious personages and believers were an important force for the CPC in organizing trade unions and peasant associations. However, due to inaccurate understandings of religion and insufficient experience in handling religious issues, some localities saw instances where religious personages and believers were expelled from these organizations. For example, in Wangzhuang, Feixiang, Handan, Hebei Province, Wang Qingdeng and others were "expelled from the peasant association because they believed in Catholicism. Two similar households of workers' families were also expelled." The CPC criticized such cases, emphasizing that "having believed in Catholicism in the past cannot be used as a condition for expulsion from the peasant association... they should be raised in consciousness through inspiration and education to gradually liberate them from superstition and ignorance, rather than using coercive orders to stop them from participating in mass activities."
At the same time, the CPC continuously issued documents and policies permitting religious personages and believers to join trade unions and peasant associations, and promoted the implementation of these policies in specific work. In August 1948, Article 4 of Chapter 2 of the Constitution of the All-China Federation of Trade Unions, adopted by the Sixth National Labor Congress, stipulated: "All manual and mental laborers working in various enterprises, organs, and schools... who have legally obtained the status of staff or workers, regardless of nationality, gender, religion, or belief, and who support the Constitution of this Federation and join voluntarily, may join various trade unions affiliated with this Federation as members." In 1949, in response to questions about teachers and doctors participating in staff and workers' unions, the All-China Federation of Trade Unions emphasized: "Regardless of nationality, gender, religion, or belief, as long as they support the aims of the staff and workers' unions, are willing to abide by their discipline and resolutions, and fulfill the admission procedures according to the union constitution, they may be recruited as members." The rights of religious personages and believers to join organizations such as trade unions and peasant associations were thus explicitly protected.
Absorbing religious personages and believers into organizations like trade unions and peasant associations could both effectively strengthen mass organizations and draw the Party closer to religious circles. This deepened the understanding of the Party's religious policies among religious personages and believers, laying an important political foundation for the Party’s united front with religious circles.
(iii) Safeguarding the right to vote and the right to stand for election of religious personages and believers
In the view of the CPC, although religious personages and believers were diverse and complex in their composition, the majority were patriotic and supported democracy. Their right to vote and to stand for election should be fully guaranteed. The CPC took this into account during the policy-making process. On February 1, 1947, in the article "Greet the New High Tide of the Chinese Revolution," Mao Zedong pointed out: with the exception of traitors and reactionaries, "all citizens, regardless of class, sex, or belief, have the right to vote and to stand for election." In April 1947, Article 7 of the Administrative Program of the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Government emphasized: "All Mongolian people over the age of eighteen, regardless of class, sex, nationality, belief, or educational level, except for those deprived of civil rights and the mentally ill, have the right to vote and to stand for election." In early 1949, during the election of delegates for the first National Women's Congress, it was stated: "Women over the age of eighteen who support New Democracy, favor national independence and land reform, and advocate for women's liberation and equality between men and women—regardless of class, nationality, profession, background, or religion—may be elected as delegates." The rights of religious personages and believers to vote and stand for election were established through government laws, decrees, programs, and directives.
In practice, these policies were implemented. Religious personages and believers participated in general meetings, such as youth and women's congresses, as well as significant assemblies like the New Political Consultative Conference [3]. At the first National Women's Congress held on March 24, 1949, there were "sixty-three delegates from democratic women's organizations and religious women's organizations from Kunming, Chongqing, Guilin, Nanjing, Chengdu, and other places." Among the more than 600 delegates at the first National Youth Congress held on May 4, 1949, were patriotic youth from religious groups across the country. On June 19, 1949, the Preparatory Committee for the New Political Consultative Conference elected 510 delegates to attend the conference, including "seven democratic personages from religious circles." Allowing religious personages and believers to participate in discussions and offer suggestions not only mobilized their initiative to participate in political affairs and utilized their wisdom—thereby improving the effectiveness and focus of policy formulation—but also strengthened the link between the Party and religious circles, promoting the development of the united front.
(iv) Uniting religious personages and believers to resist the Kuomintang reactionaries
The CPC believed that although religious belief differed from Communism and Marxism in terms of worldview, one could not overlook or deny the important role of religious groups in the revolutionary cause. Fu Lianzhang, then deputy head of the Health Department of the People's Liberation Army Military Commission, pointed out that in the common action against imperialism, feudalism, and bureaucrat-capitalism, "Communists will sincerely cooperate with all non-Party personages regardless of religious belief." The CPC actively united religious personages and believers, continuously guiding them to join the united front to overthrow feudal rule and establish New China.
First, uniting religious personages and believers to jointly call for an end to the civil war. As military friction intensified, the war of words between the CPC and the KMT also became more acute. On April 16, 1946, Zhang Xueyan of the Christian church pointed out in the article "On the Mutual Name-Calling of the Two Parties": "The method of the Communist Party's organ... in refuting Chairman Chiang [Kai-shek] is to do its best to list empirical evidence and use Chairman Chiang’s own words as basic evidence, aiming to convince people with 'reason.' The method of refutation used by the Kuomintang's organ is exactly the opposite; it does not argue against the facts listed by the Liberation Daily, but merely uses angry emotions to scold the Communist Party." In August 1946, patriotic Christians such as Diao Xinde and others, in expressing their opposition to the civil war, appealed for: "An immediate end to the civil war and the conducting of peaceful negotiations; and the restoration of communications, the reorganization of the army, the convening of a National Assembly, the formulation of a constitution, the implementation of popular elections, and the reorganization of the government." With the support of religious personages and believers, the CPC's strength in conducting a public opinion offensive against the enemy was greatly enhanced.
Second, calling on religious personages and believers to resist the perverse acts of the KMT reactionaries. On February 7, 1947, the CPC called: "We hope that workers' organizations of all political beliefs and religious sects will unite rapidly and closely for the independence and liberation of the motherland and for the common interests of the working class." Under the Party's alliance, more and more religious personages and believers participated in the War of Liberation by forming armed groups, enlisting in the army, transporting military grain and ammunition, and moving the wounded. In 1947, Zhong Yantang of the Christian church in Dongtai, Jiangsu Province, not only vigorously refuted KMT rumors about the CPC persecuting Christians—breaking the reactionaries' divisive plot to undermine the relationship between the democratic government and Christianity—but also captured several members of the "Home-Going Legions" [4] near a KMT military stronghold and burned down enemy pillboxes along with the armed work teams. The participation of religious personages and believers accelerated the development of the CPC's military forces and promoted the consolidation of the united front against dictatorship and autocracy.
The CPC's political advocacy and calls for establishing a People's Democratic United Front were not only widely recognized and enthusiastically supported by religious personages and believers—enhancing their goodwill and identification with the Party and increasing the Party's political prestige and appeal within religious circles—but also effectively guided them to actively adapt to the cause of the Chinese revolution. This continuously replenished the revolutionary forces and advanced the process toward revolutionary victory.
II. Gradually Deepening the Democratic Reform of the Old Religious System
Within the framework of the old religious system, there existed a strict and rigid hierarchy. Religious leaders represented the "will of God" and held supreme authority, capable of intervening in and deciding the appointment and dismissal of clergy, the conduct of religious activities, and the production and daily lives of believers. The religious feudal privileged class held most of the power to control the distribution of religious assets, the use of temple donations, and the formulation of monastic rules and precepts. Oppression of ordinary religious personages by upper-class figures and of believers by the clergy existed to varying degrees. Under the constraints of this old system, some religious personages and believers lost their freedom of movement and life. Marx pointed out: "To abolish religion as the illusory happiness of the people is to demand their real happiness." The CPC vigorously criticized the old religious system that artificially created gaps and inequalities and restricted personal freedom. The Party maintained that all religious personages and believers were completely equal in status, opposed the differential treatment of religious individuals, and advocated for gradually deepening the democratic reform of the old religious system, abolishing religious feudal privileges and religious oppression and exploitation, and fostering healthy and harmonious religious relations.
(i) Abolishing the old system of religious oppression and exploitation
In the old society, the phenomena of religious exploitation and religious oppression were widespread. Portions of the religious masses were subjected to the dual oppression of religious feudal forces and religious feudal patriarchy; not only were their freedoms of thought, speech, and daily life restricted, with major life events such as divorce, marriage, and childbirth dominated and interfered with by old religious forces, but they were also exploited in material and economic terms. They were either forced to participate in the construction of religious venues without compensation or compelled to hand over a portion of their production output to the religious feudal privileged class. Under the rule of the religious feudal system, many personages in religious circles and religious believers suffered from unfair treatment.
The Communist Party of China (CPC) continuously advanced the abolition of the old system of religious oppression and exploitation, striving to help religious personages and the religious masses break free from the oppression of religious feudal forces. Addressing the reality that some Islamic believers suffered heavy oppression and exploitation by the old "Ahongs" [5] and "She-tou" (community heads), the CPC specifically carried out a series of "settling accounts" movements [6] to help the Muslim masses cast off the religious feudal system. In December 1945, the democratic government of Changzhi, Shanxi, organized Muslim masses to conduct a twenty-day settling accounts movement directed against feudal exploitation and the rule of local tyrants and landlords. "The settlement was a victory; the Hui people broke free from feudal oppression and exploitation. They democratically elected a Community Property Management Committee to manage the public assets of the mosque and abolished the old 'She-tou.' Regarding the 'Ahong,' the people decided he could only manage religious affairs and could no longer rule over everything." In August 1946, the democratic government of Bo'ai, Henan, led the Muslim masses in breaking the shackles of the old society and the old religious system, striving to realize their status as masters of their own affairs and achieve equality and freedom. These activities promoted the democratic reform of religion, advanced the abolition of religious feudal privileges and the system of religious exploitation, and prevented the personal freedom and property of the religious masses from being infringed upon.
(2) Reforming the Feudal Land Ownership of Old Religions
In traditional society, religious organizations gained the approval of feudal dynasties by catering to and serving feudal rule, thereby enjoying the privileges of occupying land, collecting land rent, and exploiting tenant farmers. In the modern era, leveraging the powerful military strength of the Great Powers, Western churches acquired large tracts of land for building churches, schools, and charitable institutions in China through forms such as member donations, seizures, leasing, and buying, coming to possess a vast amount of private real estate. Under the oppression of the old religious feudal land ownership system, many religious personages and believers suffered severe fleecing and extortion.
The CPC focused on promoting the reform of the old religious feudal land ownership system, continuously adjusting the land ownership rights of religious groups, and properly handling the land occupied by temples, shrines, and churches based on the opinions of the public and the churches. In December 1946, Article 23 of the Draft Regulations of the Shaanxi-Gansu-Ningxia Border Region on the Requisition and Purchase of Land emphasized: "The land occupied by religious groups and temples shall be requisitioned or not requisitioned according to the public will of the local people." In October 1947, Article 3 of the Outline Land Law of China stipulated: "The land ownership rights of all ancestral halls, shrines, temples, schools, institutions, and organizations shall be abolished." The following year, the Program for Rent and Interest Reduction promulgated by the Central Plains Bureau of the CPC Central Committee clearly stated: "Land belonging to religious groups shall generally remain unchanged. If no one is managing it, it may be handled according to the measures for dealing with the land of refugee landlords." It is noteworthy that during this process, the CPC did not completely confiscate the land occupied by religious groups; rather, it handled the land belonging to religious groups flexibly and consistently emphasized leaving a certain amount of land for religious organizations, so that temple clergy would have the means of production to engage in agricultural labor and achieve self-sufficiency.
Through the reform of the old religious feudal land ownership system, the Party strove to realize the goal of "land to the tiller" within religious circles, gradually satisfying the land requirements of religious personages and believers, and laying a solid foundation for promoting the development of production and the improvement of production and living conditions. In March 1948, the Italian Bishop of Luoyang, Henan, Stefano Maria Belluomini (Ba Youren), told the People's Liberation Army (PLA): "Now that you have come, the people are saved." The support of religious personages and the religious believers for the CPC was evident. Consequently, more and more religious personages and believers consciously accepted the leadership of the CPC in both thought and action.
(3) Continuously Advancing the Separation of Religion and Education
"In Chinese history, religion was often linked with feudal political and economic systems," which led to the penetration of religion into political, economic, cultural, and social fields, frequently resulting in religious interference in administration, justice, and education. For instance, some Islamic and Buddhist believers combined religion with education, giving education a heavy religious character, which greatly interfered with and disrupted the normal development of education. To reduce and eliminate the influence of religion on education, the CPC, while encouraging and guiding religious personages and believers to receive scientific education, continuously advanced the reform of religious curricula and religious institutions, promoting the detachment of education from religion.
In its specific work, the CPC successively introduced and implemented many policy measures to promote the separation of religion and education. In April 1947, Article 13 of the Administrative Program of the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Government emphasized: "Implement freedom of religious belief and the separation of church and state... encourage Lamas to voluntarily enroll in school, participate in labor, and practice medicine." In August 1949, a work report from the Shanghai Municipal People's Government required mission schools to abolish the system of making religion a compulsory course. In the same month, the Provisional Measures for the Management of Private Schools in Beiping Municipality stipulated: "Private middle and primary schools run by religious groups may not include religious subjects in the curriculum, nor conduct religious propaganda during class, and must not force students to participate in religious ceremonies... In schools established by churches, the principal may not be a foreign national." Additionally, by transforming the old educational system and schools, the CPC accelerated the training of educational talent, built up the ranks of teachers, launched mass literacy campaigns, widely promoted various newspapers and books, and developed cultural education specifically targeting religious personages and believers, continuously replacing religious education with modern education. This further promoted the abolition of religious curricula and effectively weakened the influence of religion on normal educational activities, providing favorable conditions for comprehensively enhancing the cultural quality, scientific literacy, and humanistic spirit of religious circles.
(4) Earnestly Safeguarding the Legitimate Rights and Interests of Religious Circles
The CPC did not "exceptionalize" religious personages or believers because of their choices of faith, but rather treated them as equals, introducing regulations to protect the legitimate rights and interests of religious groups and the religious masses.
First, protecting the safety of life and property of religious personages and believers. In January 1947, Mao Zedong pointed out that the "private property rights of the people in the Liberated Areas," including religious personages and believers, "will continue to be guaranteed." In April 1947, Article 3 of the Declaration of the Inner Mongolia People's Congress stated: "The human rights and property rights of all people in Inner Mongolia, including... Lamas as well as former princes and nobility, are all guaranteed by the Autonomous Government." In 1948, the Code of Entry Discipline of the Shanxi-Chahar-Hebei PLA emphasized: "All churches, temples, shrines, and other religious groups that obey the laws and decrees shall not be interfered with or infringed upon." In May of the same year, the Linfen Democratic Government stated: "Protect the safety of property and life of urban residents, workers, students, foreign nationals, and all religious groups." Simultaneously, the CPC emphasized that institutions established by religious organizations, such as hospitals, orphanages, schools, and nursing homes, must not be confiscated or destroyed. The implementation of these policies not only guaranteed the normal conduct of religious activities and the production and daily life of religious personages and believers but also relieved the anxiety that religious circles felt regarding the potential confiscation of church property by the CPC, overcoming the panic that religious personages and believers felt toward the atheistic CPC. In 1947, during the investigation of an espionage case involving a Catholic church in Xingtai, Hebei, the democratic government left the personal clothing, property, and utensils in the church untouched; the Bibles and religious ritual items were all returned, and all offering tables, incense burners, and hanging icons remained intact. All Chinese and foreign priests and clergy praised the democratic government in unison, stating that it "showed every possible care and consideration for our church." In 1948, Zhang Mingde, a Protestant missionary in Fengzhen, Suiyuan, said: "The PLA truly does what it says! You announced... the protection of churches, and not only did you not stay in the chapel, you didn't even occupy the empty rooms of the church." The CPC won the heartfelt support of more religious personages and believers.
Second, carrying out famine relief work in religious circles and aiding religious personages and believers in difficulty. At that time, frequent natural disasters coupled with years of ceaseless warfare made disasters in various regions exceptionally severe, and famine occurred repeatedly. Many religious personages and believers were displaced and had no hope of food or clothing; the CPC actively assisted them. On September 24, 1945, the Xingtai Democratic Government in Hebei provided aid to a Catholic church, "distributing 4,000 catties of wheat and 5,000 catties of coal to the orphanage attached to the church, and 3,000 catties of wheat and a large quantity of firewood to the Yide Middle School." In 1946, the Shanxi Democratic Government successively distributed over 50 dan [7] of grain to provide relief for more than 270 Mongolian and Tibetan Buddhists on Mount Wutai, enabling them all to escape their lives of poverty. In 1948, throughout Suiyuan, "believers who were suffering from hunger and cold all received grain relief on an equal footing from the PLA, and those who had fled began to return one after another." With the help of the CPC, the difficulties in production and daily life for disaster-stricken religious personages and believers were resolved, and they gradually recovered from the famine and committed themselves to agricultural production.
III. Implementing the Policy of Freedom of Religious Belief
Respecting and protecting freedom of religious belief is an important viewpoint for Marxist parties in understanding and handling religious issues and is a basic policy long upheld by the CPC. Lenin pointed out: "Everyone must be perfectly free, not only to belong to whatever religion he pleases, but also to propagate any religion, or to change his religion." The CPC advocates freedom of religious belief, holding that believing or not believing in a religion, or which religion to believe in, is an individual's freedom, and no one may obstruct or interfere. By implementing the policy of freedom of religious belief, the people's right to freely choose their faith was guaranteed, the customs and habits of religious believers among ethnic minorities were protected and respected, and the separation of religion from ethnicity was promoted. This changed the situation where entire ethnic minority groups were religious and advanced unity between religious and non-religious people.
(1) Fully Protecting Freedom of Religious Belief
In modern China, the lack of freedom in religious belief was still widespread, and phenomena such as forced religious adherence or the prohibition of returning to secular life after entering a religion occurred occasionally. Some people, under the oppression of religious feudal power, had no choice in whether to believe; they were forced from childhood to participate in religious rituals such as studying scriptures, performing worship, and fasting, and would be attacked or punished if they did not believe. The CPC resolutely opposed all acts of forcing non-religious people to believe or forcing religious people to abandon their faith. By actively promoting and popularizing the ideological concept of freedom of religious belief and vigorously carrying out work to protect this freedom, the Party safeguarded the people's right to freedom of religious belief.
First, granting law-abiding missionaries the right to move freely and supporting the conduct of legitimate religious activities. For missionaries who obeyed the management of the democratic government and complied with laws and regulations, and for religious activities that conformed to rules and systems, the CPC provided affirmation and support. In September and October 1945, the Xingtai Democratic Government in Hebei issued missionary certificates to Catholic missionaries and "granted them various long-term passes and martial law permits, guaranteeing their freedom of movement and freedom to preach." In January 1949, the CPC Central Committee instructed: "Regarding foreign missionaries already in our Liberated Areas, they are permitted to continue residing there and performing their duties." Legitimate and law-abiding missionaries not only obtained the right to live in China but also possessed the right to believe and preach. Second, stipulating that law-abiding individuals have the right to freedom of religious belief. The CPC believed that freedom of religious belief is principled and regulated, with the basic prerequisite of abiding by the law; the freedom of religious belief of law-abiding citizens must be guaranteed. On August 11, 1946, Article 7 of the Common Administrative Program of the Democratic Governments of the Provinces and Municipalities (Special Municipalities) of the Northeast stipulated: "Guarantee the freedom of person, speech, press, assembly, association, thought, religion, belief, election, migration, and occupation of the people of the Northeast." On April 27, 1947, Article 3 of the Declaration of the Inner Mongolia People's Congress pointed out: "Ensure the various freedoms of the people, including person, religion, belief, assembly, and association." On October 10, 1947, the PLA Headquarters issued an instruction on freedom of religious belief. In September 1949, Article 5 of the Common Program of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference stipulated: "The people shall have freedom of... religious belief and freedom to hold processions and demonstrations." Henceforth, the religious freedom of the broad masses obtained solid institutional support and a clear policy basis.
Implementing policies to protect the freedom of religious belief allowed the Party to win the trust and support of religious personages and the believing masses, thereby consolidating and strengthening the mass base of the Party’s governance. On June 23, 1949, a symposium for the religious circles was held in Xi'an, Shaanxi. After the officials introduced the democratic government's policy on freedom of belief, the attending religious personages and believers "unanimously praised the Chinese Communist Party and the People's Liberation Army for protecting religious freedom." Within religious circles, the popular support and civil strength that enabled the CPC to achieve victory in the War of Liberation were further coalesced.
(2) Respecting the customs and habits of believing masses among ethnic minorities
For a China where multiple religions and ethnicities coexist, and where religious and ethnic issues are intertwined, differences in language and customs exist between non-believers and believers, as well as among followers of different faiths. Some religions have formed unique doctrinal norms and codes of conduct; for instance, Muslims have deep taboos regarding pork, alcohol, and smoking.
The CPC emphasized respecting the customs and habits of ethnic minority believers, stipulating that no one may intentionally infringe upon or provoke them. First, the Party formulated programs and regulations to respect these customs. On August 11, 1946, Article 8 of the Common Administrative Program of the Democratic Governments of the Provinces and Municipalities (Special Municipalities) of Northeast China emphasized: "Respect the languages, cultures, religions, beliefs, and customs of ethnic minorities such as the Mongols and Hui." In April 1947, Article 5 of the Administrative Program of the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Government emphasized: "All ethnic groups shall respect each other's customs, habits, history, culture, religion, and belief." In September 1949, Article 53 of the Common Program of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference stipulated: "All ethnic minorities shall have the freedom to develop their own languages and writing systems, and to preserve or reform their own customs, habits, and religious beliefs." The customs and habits of ethnic minority believers thus received formal permission and protection at the official government level.
Second, the policy of respecting the customs of ethnic minority believers was implemented in mass work and military work. On July 9, 1948, when the People's Liberation Army (PLA) was stationed in Xuandimiao Village, they fully respected Muslim customs. Local Muslim masses reflected: "The Eighth Route [8] is truly polite and reasonable. As soon as the family (referring to the PLA) entered our village, they didn't touch 'Great Religion' [9] food; they gave us so much face [10] that they truly put themselves out for us." In 1948, the PLA forces advancing into Sui-Meng "won the support of various religious groups and believers throughout Suiyuan," and "in Fengzhen, all religious groups expressed their gratitude for our army’s protection." These efforts not only allowed ethnic minority believers to preserve their cultural traditions and customs but also debunked and shattered rumors that the CPC would "kill the clergy and exterminate Buddhism" [11] due to its belief in materialism. This established a favorable image of the CPC as being diligent in administration, loving the people, and putting the people first. More ethnic minority believers committed themselves to the revolutionary movement against oppression and dictatorship initiated by the CPC, greatly accelerating the pace of establishing the New China.
(3) Carrying out atheist propaganda and education
In traditional society, some parts of the populace held simple primitive religions, ancestor worship, and the adoration of nature and deities; their thinking contained varying degrees of theistic tendencies. Against the backdrop of the ravages of war and public anxiety at that time, some people whose lives were difficult and increasingly impoverished attempted to use religious illusions to numb themselves and escape reality. This caused doctrines of ghosts and spirits and religious theism to flourish to varying degrees. Consequently, superstitious trends regarding ghosts and gods prevailed in society. Those who believed in spirits, God, and fatalism were everywhere, and phenomena such as talking of ghosts, burning incense, worshipping Buddha, and seeking fortune-tellers were common among the people. As firm believers in Marxist atheism, the CPC opposed all "ghost and god" culture and superstitious concepts. It advocated replacing theological education with natural science education and actively carried out atheist propaganda and education to help the masses recognize the illusory nature of such talk and gradually eliminate thoughts of spirits and ghosts.
First, the Party used forms such as mobilizing youth to explain atheist knowledge and holding atheist propaganda and education meetings to strengthen the effects of anti-superstition work. On April 17, 1949, the Work Program of the China New Democratic Youth League emphasized: "The New Democratic Youth League should propagate various types of natural science knowledge, patiently explain the harms of superstition and religion to young men and women, and use all ways and means to expose the facts of the hypocrisy and toxicity of superstition and religion." In the spring of 1949, many areas in Southern Hebei held anti-superstition rallies to guide local people to abandon superstitious concepts. In July 1949, the Chengzi Village Coal Factory guided workers to discuss questions such as "Why do reactionaries use religion to deceive people?" helping workers gain a more accurate and in-depth understanding of the deceptive nature of religion.
Second, the Party disseminated and popularized natural and social science knowledge, carrying out popularized and diversified anti-superstition activities. Courses such as flora and fauna, chemistry, physics, physiology, sociology, and philosophy were offered in schools to vigorously promote and popularize scientific knowledge and theory. Among the people, "sorcerer confession movements" [12] and "movements to break superstition and oppose feudalism" were widely launched. Songs and dramas with anti-superstition themes were composed and performed, speeches and articles promoting the spirit of scientific atheism were published, and books and periodicals spreading atheism were released, "pushing atheist propaganda and education into the daily lives of the masses." This guided the masses to establish Marxist materialist and atheist ideological concepts and avoid the influence and interference of ghost doctrines. These successful practices of atheist education provided a good starting point for the CPC to carry out such work under its new historical orientation.
IV. Resolutely Striking Down Illegal and Reactionary Religious Forces
As an important part of the superstructure and ideology, religion is an inverted and illusory reflection of social existence and real life. Marx pointed out: "Religion itself is without content; its roots are not in heaven, but on earth." On the eve of the victory of the Chinese Revolution, a clear trend of differentiation occurred within religious circles. Some religious organizations actively joined the revolutionary ranks, while some religious groups—represented by "folk sects" (minjian jiaomen)—rapidly rotted, degenerated, and became increasingly reactionary. The Kuomintang reactionaries not only made extensive use of religion to delude the public and numb the masses but also enticed religious groups with wavering or problematic stances to serve as their henchmen, using religion as a gimmick to engage in counter-revolutionary and anti-people activities. The CPC set about striking at missionaries who collaborated with enemy agents, transforming or banning reactionary "secret societies" (huidaomen), curbing the sprouting and spreading of reactionary religious forces, and advancing the process of institutionalizing religious work under the rule of law.
(1) Striking at missionaries collaborating with enemy agents
Some religious organizations were introduced and developed on a large scale during the process of modern powers invading China, possessing a certain aggressive and predatory nature. Some missionaries not only acted as accomplices and tools for imperialism’s political interference, economic plunder, cultural aggression, and ideological control over China but also used their extraterritoriality to act lawlessly, cruelly oppress the Chinese people, and wantonly steal China’s wealth and resources.
During the War of Liberation, some missionaries allowed themselves to degenerate into spies and secret agents for the Kuomintang reactionaries and imperialists. Controlled by enemy agents, they openly or secretly spread "evil winds," rumors, and prophecies, attempting to subvert public perception and undermine the fledgling people's political power. In 1948, the CPC Central Committee emphasized in its policy toward foreigners in China: "When certain foreign missionaries engage in espionage and sabotage, we should, in addition to detaining them for trial, collect sufficient evidence and publish it at home and abroad to clarify their crimes." Meanwhile, the People's Daily also issued a statement regarding missionary personnel: "For clergy and believers, regardless of their nationality, as long as they obey the laws and decrees of our democratic government and do not engage in illegal sabotage, they shall all be protected. However, if any use religion as a disguise or cover to collude with the Chiang Kai-shek bandit gang [13] and foreign imperialism to engage in espionage... the criminals must be punished according to the laws of the democratic government based on the severity of their crimes." Yet some missionaries refused to comply with the democratic government's decrees and regulations, insisting on doing the opposite and continuing to oppose the CPC and sabotage the revolution.
The CPC carried out the work of punishing reactionary and corrupt missionaries according to the law, severely cracking down on reactionary religious organizations, and continuously purging religious extremist forces. In September 1945, the Xingtian Catholic Church in Hebei secretly allowed 43 traitors to escape and hid over 60 firearms; by October of the same year, the democratic government executed a puppet army captain who had been harbored in the church. Missionaries with major crimes were detained and punished, while those with minor responsibilities were given warnings and education. In the spring of 1947, the Catholic Church in Qiqihar, Northeast China, spread rumors that "the Eighth Route Army cannot win, the Central Army [14] will be victorious," slandered the Land Reform, and resisted the decrees of the People's Government. The Northeast Higher Court sentenced the primary offenders, Bosch (Bo Shide) and Hogan (Hu Ganpu), to 12 years in prison, and secondary offenders such as Luc (Lu Huaxing) and Wei Youmin to between 3 and 5 years. In October 1947, the Central Hebei public security organs arrested missionaries engaged in espionage, the establishment of secret radio stations, and the scouting of PLA designations and organization. Foreign missionaries such as Shang Jianxun, Pan Rulin, and Mu Qihua were deported, while the Chinese missionary Jia Shushan was "sentenced to one year in prison and deprived of political rights for two years." On August 23, 1948, the Luoyang Public Security Bureau arrested Xu Hongyuan, a missionary leader who bribed bandits and thugs, organized reactionary armed forces, and attacked district and town organs. Due to the gravity of his crimes, he was sentenced to death and executed by firing squad on September 24. Through the severe punishment of missionaries who were "in cahoots and breathing through the same nostril" [15] with enemy agents, the Party struck at illegal religious groups, inhibited the spread of reactionary religious forces, and cut off the control of imperialism and the Kuomintang reactionaries over religious groups. This maintained the stability and authority of the CPC regime, removed "malignant tumors" in the religious field hindering the revolutionary cause, and reduced resistance and obstacles to the revolution.
(2) Transforming and banning reactionary secret societies
During the War of Liberation, with the increasing collapse of the economy in Kuomintang-controlled areas and the intensification of social upheaval, various religious forces began to "resurface like dregs" (chen zha fan qi), continuously deluding people and defrauding the laboring masses by "wantonly spreading religious theism." The prevalence of local assertions about ghosts and gods and ideas of praying for blessings to avoid disasters provided opportunities for cult organizations to sprout; various "secret societies" (huidaomen) became increasingly rampant, bringing calamity to the countryside. These secret society organizations were not only highly secretive, deceptive, and superstitious but also reactionary, "hostile to the new political power where the people are masters of their own affairs." They often used slogans and banners of "saving the world and the people" or "helping those in peril" to entice many people who were experiencing difficulties or psychological collapse. The Kuomintang reactionaries, attempting a final desperate struggle, overtly and covertly courted and directed these secret societies to oppose the CPC regime. In response, the CPC Central Committee repeatedly issued instructions to dissolve secret societies and stop their activities, but some remained unrepentant, continuing to spread rumors, deceive, and provoke trouble. The CPC began to vigorously carry out the work of transforming and banning reactionary secret societies, gradually striking at and dismantling their influence.
First, the Party severely punished secret society leaders who had a deleterious influence, promptly destroyed their organizations, and cracked down on their activities. In January 1949, the North China People's Government issued an "Order on Banning the Activities of Secret Societies and Sects, requiring public security departments in all regions to strengthen the rectification of secret society activities." Local governments and public security organs in North China actively organized special operations, and most local secret societies were continuously destroyed. On March 28, 1948, Laizhuo County in Hebei uncovered the "Wutai Mountain Universal Relief Buddhist Society," which incited the masses and plotted riots; primary offenders Zhang Yaoxi and Guo Tinglan were arrested and handed over to the local public security bureau for trial. In the same year, Qingyuan County in Hebei banned 13 types of secret societies, such as the Yiguandao and Chahuadao, and punished 561 leaders (such as "Initiators," "Altar Masters," and "Masters"). Reactionary secret society forces received a heavy blow, and many were eliminated or dissolved.
Second, the Party carried out propaganda work against secret societies to help the masses recognize their reactionary and harmful nature and take the initiative to stay away from them. In early 1949, Qingyuan County in Hebei exposed and criticized key members of secret societies controlled by Chiang Kai-shek's agents; coerced followers were induced to quit through policy education, while those unwilling to repent were given administrative punishments. In the spring of 1949, secret society activities were rampant in the Southern Hebei region. Many people in Zaoqiang and Jing counties were fooled by the Yiguandao and Shengxiandao, delaying their agricultural production. The "Six-Harmony Boxing" (Liuhequan) in Yongnian County even recruited dismissed village cadres in an attempt to seize control of the militia and create chaos. The democratic government of the Southern Hebei region announced the cessation of secret society activities, disbanded all such groups, and actively "inspired farmers to recognize the dangers within secret societies and sects." These actions effectively eliminated the social basis for the spread of secret societies, rooted out the ideological soil in which they germinated, and promoted the orderly and in-depth progress of the work to transform and ban them. This marked a crucial step in the CPC’s exploration of managing religious affairs according to the law and advancing the institutionalization of religious work.
V. Conclusion
Religion is a product of human society developing to a specific historical stage; its formation and evolution possess profound and complex historical and cultural roots as well as a deep social foundation. Marx pointed out: "With the disappearance of the distorted reality that has religion as its theory, religion will also perish of itself." The Communist Party of China clearly recognizes that religion will inevitably not exist forever; as the roots and conditions for its existence gradually diminish, religion will ultimately move toward its demise. However, this will be an extremely long process [16]. Under the conditions of that time, the phenomenon of religious belief would continue to exist for a long period, and it was possible for religion to continue to develop and flourish. Therefore, administrative power could neither be used to prohibit a particular religion, nor could it be used to promote one. During the Liberation War [17] period, the Communist Party of China accelerated the process of the legalization and democratization of religious work, raised the Party’s prestige and influence within religious circles, continuously deepened its understanding of religion and religious issues, and advanced the Sinicization of the Marxist view of religion. In today's society, characterized by increasing openness and a highly developed internet, the difficulty of doing religious work and handling religious issues is greater, the tasks are more arduous, and the significance is more pronounced. It is imperative to fully implement the policy of freedom of religious belief, strengthen the governance of internet-based religious issues, deepen propaganda and education on Marxist atheism, and improve the laws, regulations, and policy systems of religious management. Only by doing so can we actively guide religion to adapt to socialist society, better promote the high-quality development of religious work in the New Era, and more properly handle religious issues and religious relations.
(Author biography: Zhou Wei is a doctoral student at the School of Marxism, Northwestern Polytechnical University) Web Editor: Tongxin Source: Science and Atheism [18], Issue 6, 2023.