Xiao Kaiqiang: An Analysis of Qu Qiubai's Thoughts on Scientific Atheism
Scientific atheism, as the starting point and cornerstone of the Marxist worldview, is a powerful ideological weapon for the proletariat to refute religious theism. Qu Qiubai (1899–1935), an early leader of the Communist Party of China, was an outstanding Marxist theorist and propagandist. He was among the first to apply dialectical materialism and historical materialism to the scientific analysis and critique of theism, including religious theology and secular superstition. In doing so, he formed a relatively systematic body of scientific atheist thought, promoting the dissemination and development of early Marxist atheism in China. A deep analysis of the logical formation, primary content, and historical contribution of Qu Qiubai’s scientific atheist thought is of great significance and utility for advancing the research, interpretation, publicity, and education of Marxist atheism in the New Era.
I. The Logical Formation of Qu Qiubai's Scientific Atheist Thought
The formation and development of Qu Qiubai’s scientific atheist thought possess profound theoretical and practical foundations. Theoretically, his thoughts originated from the inheritance of Marxist atheism; practically, they responded to the necessity of conducting revolutionary struggle within a semi-colonial and semi-feudal society.
(1) The Theoretical Source: The Choice of Marxist Atheism
Qu Qiubai’s scientific atheist thought underwent a trajectory that began with the influence of Buddhism and Taoism, moved toward an interest in Tolstoy’s religious-moral view of "love," and culminated in the choice of Marxist atheism. Until his heroic martyrdom in Tingzhou, Fujian, in June 1935, Qu remained steadfast in explaining, defending, and practicing scientific atheist thought, making important contributions to the development of the Sinicization of Marxist atheism.
From childhood, influenced by his father’s Taoist faith, Qu conducted specific research into "Laozi" and "Zhuangzi," and his outlook once showed a "detached scholar" [1] tendency. Later, due to family misfortunes and the hardships of life, Qu experienced spiritual anguish and turned from Taoism to Buddhism, developing a thick interest in Buddhist studies. The Bodhisattvacharyā [2] spirit of "attaining enlightenment above and transforming all living beings below" once became his life pursuit. When the May Fourth Movement broke out in 1919, Qu was filled with patriotic fervor; as a representative elected by his fellow students at the School of Russian Language, he actively led, organized, and participated in this great patriotic anti-imperialist struggle, which catalyzed the beginning of his ideological transformation. During this period, while participating in the struggle, Qu also engaged in literary activities, primarily translating and introducing foreign literature—especially Russian literature. He successively translated the works of Tolstoy, Gogol, Daudet, and others, publishing them in domestic periodicals. Among these, Tolstoy’s thought exerted a significant influence on him. In Superfluous Words [3], Qu noted: "At the time I first organized the magazine New Society with friends like Zheng Zhenduo, Qu Shiying, and Geng Jizhi, I was an anarchist close to the Tolstoyan school." In particular, Tolstoy’s religious-moral view of "love" made Qu feel there was "great value in researching it," and he briefly considered it a "good prescription" for transforming society. However, this influence was short-lived because, as Qu put it, "Intellectually, I moved very quickly from Tolstoyan anarchism to Marxism."
In 1920, after reading the Russian version of August Bebel's Woman and Socialism, Qu developed a "curiosity and research interest in the ultimate ideal of socialism." Consequently, he joined the Marxist Research Society initiated by Li Dazhao [4]. In the process of engaging with Marxist works, he "slightly grasped a realist outlook on life and the universe" and gradually began to lean toward "materialism." To further seek the truth of Marxism and simultaneously "shoulder a share of the responsibility for the ideological development of China’s era of rebirth," Qu served as a correspondent for the Morning Post (晨报) stationed in Soviet Russia. During his two years there (late 1920 to late 1922), he not only investigated the political, economic, diplomatic, and ethnic conditions of the world's first socialist state—including religious issues—but also studied Marxist works diligently while serving as a translator and teaching assistant at the Communist University of the Toilers of the East in Moscow. Through practical investigation and theoretical study, Qu "fortunately caught sight of the lighthouse in the sea of the mind." He realized that "realist, historical materialism possesses a realistic universe; the proletariat acts for its own interests, which is also to shoulder the historical mission for human culture." At this point, he was "no longer a filial son or obedient grandson of the old age, but a vigorous infant of the 'new era' [5]." Marxist atheism, based on dialectical materialism and historical materialism, had already become his powerful tool for understanding and transforming the world. In January 1923, Qu returned to China and strove to propagate Marxist atheism through the integration of theory and practice, applying it to the revolutionary struggle in China. He successively translated works containing Marxist atheist thought by authors such as Gorev, Gorky, and Meuring. Among these, Gorev’s Proletarian Philosophy: Materialism systematically expounded on the origin, development, and nature of religion, as well as the religious views of idealism and materialism; it became an essential work for early Marxists to understand scientific atheist thought. Concurrently, Qu authored a series of works explaining his own scientific atheist ideas, such as An Outline of Social Philosophy and Modern Sociology, emphasizing that only Marxism can enable people to "break free from the shackles of various religious superstitions and pseudo-sciences." Faith in Marxism and identification with Marxist atheism represented Qu Qiubai’s correct choice during his theoretical and practical explorations, and the formation and development of his scientific atheism truly made him a steadfast Marxist pioneer.
(2) The Practical Need: An Inevitable Requirement of the Anti-Imperialist and Anti-Feudal Struggle
Marx and Engels once pointed out: "The true content of all epoch-making systems is formed out of the needs of the period in which these systems were produced." Qu Qiubai was born and raised in the old semi-colonial and semi-feudal society, where imperialist aggression and the rule of feudal forces allowed the doctrine of ghosts and gods to run rampant. Scientific atheism became an inevitable choice to refute religious theism and clear the ideological obstacles to the anti-imperialist and anti-feudal struggle. Qu’s scientific atheist thought was precisely produced to meet the needs of this era.
On one hand, imperialism carried out cultural aggression under the cloak of religion, attempting to place the shackles of religious theology upon the Chinese people. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, imperialist aggression against China reached a new climax. In addition to using all military, political, diplomatic, and economic means, they utilized religion for ideological and cultural aggression. Supported by Western governments and churches, a large number of Western missionaries flooded into China under the guise of "doing good and saving people." From the coast to the interior, from cities to villages, they occupied land, built churches, and preached of God, trumpeting that one could enter the "Kingdom of Heaven" after death. Using the name of proselytization, they were in fact the vanguard of imperialist aggression in China. This is consistent with Qu Qiubai’s analysis of the purpose of imperialist missionary work in China in his article The Chinese Revolution and the Communist Party: "First, to enter the Chinese interior to investigate detailed conditions and prepare plans for imperialist aggression against China; second, to use flowery words to deceive the Chinese people, making them believe in happiness after death so they will not resist imperialism." The flood of Western religion during this period made Qu realize that only by deeply carrying out the research and dissemination of scientific atheism—and by exposing and critiquing the essence of religious theism—could the minds of the masses be liberated. Only then could they break free from the slavery and shackles of religious theology and actively participate in the great struggle against imperialist aggression.
On the other hand, feudal rulers used theocratic thought and secular superstitions to delude the people and weaken their consciousness of resistance. In old China, feudal rulers used the rhetoric of the "divine right of kings" to deify themselves, thereby achieving the goal of maintaining, consolidating, and strengthening their rule. This made theocratic thought a "gigantic rope" that had bound the Chinese people for thousands of years. Although the Xinhai Revolution [6] overthrew the feudal imperial system and weakened theocratic thought to a certain extent, the restoration of the monarchy by Yuan Shikai [7] saw the advocacy of "worshipping heaven and Confucius," and various arguments promoting theism rose again. At this time, secular superstitious activities inseparable from theocratic thought—such as kowtowing to heaven and earth and worshipping gods and ghosts—were also spreading. Various superstitious organizations and their publications emerged, and activities like planchette writing (fuji) [8] were highly active. Even articles promoting immortals, ghosts, and demons dared to be published in newspapers to stir up trouble. As Qu Qiubai put it: "The cannibalistic ritual teachings [9] are still baring their fangs and brandishing their claws; the intimidation of King Yama and hell, the worship of the 'Honorable Judge' [10]... these still shroud everything, exerting extremely stubborn resistance against the growth of revolutionary class consciousness in an invisible way." Theocratic thought and secular superstition had an extensive influence in China at that time, deluding and enlisting not only the common people but also members of the intelligentsia. This led Qu to deeply realize that to break the shackles and oppression of feudal ideology, the edge of critique must be directed at theocratic thought and secular superstition. Scientific atheism had to be used to clear away the regressive concepts, such as autocracy and feudal superstition, that existed in patriarchal society and hindered revolutionary progress.
II. The Primary Content of Qu Qiubai's Scientific Atheist Thought
Atheism is not only the result of being "brought forth" by religious theism but is also something that grows and develops through opposition to and struggle against it. As Engels said: "Atheism, as a mere negation of religion, still has reference to religion, and without the latter, it would not exist itself." Qu’s scientific atheist thought is prominently manifested in his use of dialectical materialism and historical materialism to analyze fundamental issues such as the formation, development, and social role of religion, revealing the relationship between religious theism and idealism. Simultaneously, based on China’s social realities, he engaged in deep reflection on how to guide the masses in breaking free from the shackles of religious theism.
(1) Scientific Explanation of the Formation and Development of Religion
Qu Qiubai believed that "to study any phenomenon, one must observe its occurrence, development, and extinction." Regarding religion, which produces the concept of deities, he used dialectical materialism and historical materialism as weapons in An Outline of Social Philosophy to focus on analyzing its origin, transformation, and eventual disappearance.
First, regarding the origin of religion, Qu explicitly stated that "religion is the product of social labor." He believed that in the early collaborative labor of humanity, people inevitably faced a struggle against nature. Due to a lack of scientific knowledge, primitive humans could neither understand nor cope with the cruel natural world and complex natural phenomena. They could only rely on "religious concepts to deceive themselves (faith)," believing that only in this way could they "summon courage and stimulate emotions to engage in production." Simultaneously, they used certain rituals and actions to demonstrate their reverence and awe for these concepts; this was the earliest form of religion. Qu’s viewpoint clarified that religion is a product of human social development—a "phantom of the god on the other shore" formed by humanity to better survive and develop under conditions of low knowledge and productivity. This actually negated the existence of any god in the material world.
Second, Qu provided a comprehensive exposition on the transformation of religion. He believed that the development of religion "follows the general development of society." At different stages of social development, religious beliefs in deities have different contents—from "animism" in primitive society to the totemistic "fetishism" of hunter-gatherer societies; from "ancestor worship" in patriarchal society to the crude "polytheism" of the small-peasant economy; and from the "hierarchical religion" of feudal society to the "monotheism" of capitalist society. The image of the deity also evolved from being "largely beasts" to a state where "man created gods in his own image and likeness." In his view, the fundamental reason for religious transformation lies in "technical progress bringing about science or philosophy," which makes "the mysteries of the natural world gradually cease to be major problems," yet "the mysteries of society give rise to layer upon layer of new evils." Consequently, the god of religion gradually sheds its "human-shaped" appearance and is replaced by abstract concepts such as "benevolence," "mercy," and "love." Through his discourse and analysis of religious transformation, Qu enabled people to realize that so-called sacred religion is merely a heavenly projection of earthly relations; it is not that God created man, but that man created God for himself.
Finally, Qu Qiubai argued that religion would inevitably wither away following the revolutionary struggle of the proletariat. He maintained that since religion is rooted in human superstition regarding natural and social forces and flourishes under capitalist exploitation and oppression, once these mysteries are unraveled and exploitation is abolished, religion will lose the conditions for its survival and trend toward extinction. The force capable of achieving this goal is necessarily the proletariat. In his view, on one hand, "the proletariat grows within advanced technology, and the mysteries of nature have long ceased to be an issue for them"; on the other hand, through long-term class struggle, the proletariat gradually comes to understand the causality of social phenomena, seeking "not conjecture, but true explanations of phenomena." Furthermore, as the most advanced and revolutionary class in human history, the proletariat "absolutely has no need for a system of exploitation; they not only refuse to deceive themselves or others, but strive to eliminate the deception of others." Consequently, these factors dictate that the proletariat "must oppose religion and clear away all superstitions regarding nature and society," firmly "engaging in the great undertaking of class struggle and the transformation of global society." Once the proletariat truly realizes the transformation of human society and all systems of exploitation and class struggle are abolished, "there will be no further room for the existence of religion."
(2) A Dialectical Analysis of the Social Role of Religious Theism
Qu Qiubai pointed out: "The absolute requirement of Marxist theory is that when analyzing any social problem, it must be placed within a specific historical scope." Therefore, while he strenuously opposed religious theism, he maintained a dialectical analysis when viewing its social role, situating it within specific historical contexts.
On one hand, Qu Qiubai affirmed that as a part of human civilization, religious theism once played a positive role during certain historical periods. He believed that religion in the primitive era was "necessary within collective labor" because it could help people of that time "summon courage and stimulate emotions to engage in production." Moreover, religion during this period "often performed the functions of modern science, art, custom, morality, and philosophy, blending into a vague system that served as a tool for society to adapt to nature: transmitting experience, regulating emotions, and practicing collective labor (rituals)." Thus, in the primitive era, religion played a positive role in promoting the development of human society. After the transition to class society, religious theism gradually evolved into a tool for the ruling class to intimidate, domesticate, and overawe the ruled classes. Of course, during this period, religious theism was "sometimes also utilized by the ruled classes as a tool for class struggle against oppression." In Controversial Issues in the Chinese Revolution, Qu Qiubai noted: "From the 'Heavenly Spirits and Earthly Fiends' [11] in Water Margin, to the paper men and horses of the White Lotus Sect, the charms and spells of the Boxers, down to the various 'magical arts' of today’s Red Spear Society and Hard Belly Society—these are all insurrectionary tactics found by the peasantry out of desperation." He believed that while these Daoist-style superstitions were ignorant and ridiculous, "their spirit of resistance is highly respectable." Of course, Qu Qiubai maintained throughout that the positive roles played by religious theism were transient and secondary, while its negative role in hindering social progress and development remained primary.
On the other hand, grounded in the Marxist method of class analysis, Qu Qiubai exposed the reactionary class essence and negative social effects of religious theism. First, he argued that religious theism severely shackled people's minds. He pointed out that the convergence of religious belief with the concept of life duties made divine commandments and the idea that "the August Heaven and Sovereign Earth truly look down upon us" [12] the primary content of obligation, which "gradually became fixed as religious rituals." These "created a spiritual and physical prison, locking everything away." Second, Qu Qiubai regarded religious theism as a tool of class rule. He noted that as humanity entered class society, religion's roles in "transmitting experience" and "practicing collective labor" gradually disappeared, leaving only the function of "regulating emotions." This function grew alongside class rule, as the ruling class utilized it "to intimidate the ruled classes into submission and to overawe their will for the purpose of exploitation." In Long Live Soviet Power, he also remarked that "the bourgeoisie further utilizes various religions or moralities to intoxicate the oppressed classes," ensuring that the broad masses of the oppressed "have no opportunity to participate in bourgeois political power" and "cannot enjoy the rights and freedoms of democracy." Finally, Qu Qiubai argued that religious theism hindered the progress and development of science. He pointed out that in the feudal era, inventors could "monopolize 'hereditary teachings' or even attribute them to myths," giving rise to "chiefs, shamans, and Confucian scholars" [13], such that "technical civilization, which was originally intended to promote social evolution, instead became a redundant growth [14] obstructing it." In capitalist society, because bourgeois scholars fear that the "pure and rigorous law of scientific causality" might be applied to social phenomena—thereby exposing the exploitative essence of the bourgeoisie and triggering proletarian revolution—they would rather use religion to manufacture beliefs about social phenomena than "dare or be willing to use scientific methods to study" them. All this indicates that religious theology has become a fetter on social progress and development.
(3) Revealing the Relationship Between Religious Theism and Idealism
Lenin once pointed out that "philosophical idealism is only a disguised and embellished ghost-story," indicating the close connection between idealism and religious theism. Therefore, the struggle between atheism and theism necessarily encompasses the struggle between materialism and idealism. As a staunch materialist, Qu Qiubai not only profoundly elucidated the relationship between religious theism and idealism but also closely integrated the critique of idealism with the critique of religious theism, achieving a thorough critique of religious theology. This became a distinctive feature of his scientific atheist thought.
First, Qu Qiubai clarified the "kinship" between religious theism and idealism. He explicitly stated: "The doctrine of idealism is actually close to religious concepts—it is merely phrased more gently in form." For one, he believed that both religious theism and idealism view the spirit as an existence that can be separated from matter. Religious theism "generally assumes there is a mysterious power above nature, and human consciousness is a manifestation of this mysterious power"; idealism asserts that "spirit" is the source of all things, "explaining all cosmic phenomena and the properties of all matter by taking certain qualities of the 'spirit' as the cause." Furthermore, he maintained that both religious theism and idealism affirm creationism. Religious theism preaches the existence of deities and God, believing they created the world and humanity; he cited legends such as "the Memphis superstition of the god Ptah creating the world like a stonemason building a house" and "other places believing the universe was woven by a goddess." Meanwhile, idealism holds that "before the beginning of the world, there already existed a non-human, divine 'spirit'," which created the world and humanity. Finally, he argued that both religious theism and idealism lead the origin of the world toward mystification. Religious theism uses supernatural divine power to explain phenomena unknown to people, believing that "outside of matter, there is an abstract and illusory 'Dao' [15] governing society and history"; conversely, for idealism, "'thought' exists independently and without basis, so they must create many 'mysteries' to account for it," such as God, "Supreme Reason," or the "Universal Will." In short, in Qu Qiubai’s view, there is only a formal difference between religious theism and idealism; they are consistent in essence, supporting and relying on each other to jointly oppose materialist epistemology.
Second, based on the fundamental tenets of materialism, Qu Qiubai exposed the absurdity of religious theism through his critique of idealism. Inheriting the Marxist materialist view, he maintained that "there is no spirit independent of matter; the state of matter determines the state of spirit," and clearly pointed out that there is no other world outside the material world, such as heaven, hell, the "three realms," or the "ideal world." Based on this scientific understanding, he pointed out that the error of idealism lies in its denial of the existence of the objective world and its attempt to "explain the universe or social phenomena based on subjective, ideal, or psychological interpretations," which forces idealism to "eventually take refuge in religion." Qu Qiubai further noted that spiritualism and all forms of idealism "emerged from the animism of early man." When nature is examined from a scientific perspective, "the animistic viewpoint can no longer exist." He cited the "nebular hypothesis" of Kant and Laplace to verify that the scientific origin of the universe contradicts the "creation of the world" accounts and the Christian seven-day Genesis. He also cited Darwin’s theory of biological evolution and cell theory to show that human origins definitely did not stem from divine creation. These points not only used materialism to refute the idealist view that "spirit precedes matter" but also exposed the deceptive nature of the false doctrines of religious theism, thoroughly shaking the theoretical foundation upon which religious theism rests.
(4) Guiding the People to Break Free from the Shackles of Religious Theism
As an early leader of the Communist Party of China, Qu Qiubai gradually realized through theoretical research and practical exploration that science, education, and cultural revolution are powerful weapons against religious theism. They are also essential tools for guiding the masses to break free from the shackles of theological concepts and superstitious thinking and to raise their revolutionary consciousness for resisting exploitation and oppression.
First, he promoted scientific truth. Qu Qiubai believed that "the authority of science is supreme," particularly in the struggle against religious theism. On one hand, he pointed out that the progress of natural science allows "man to increase his power over nature," thereby enabling the analysis of the laws of natural phenomena to solve various mysteries of the natural world and reduce dependence on gods and God. On the other hand, he noted that the progress of social science allows people to gradually form a correct understanding of the laws governing the development of human society, enabling them to "observe all phenomena with a scientific worldview, investigating external things purely objectively," attaining truthful knowledge and exposing the fallacies of religious theism. In his article "On Zola," he remarked that "Catholicism and science can in no way be reconciled; science is the end of Catholicism," making it clear that science is the sharpest tool for destroying religious theism. In short, Qu Qiubai believed that science is the "method for conquering the workings of Heaven." He advocated for "studying science and spreading science," and for "carrying out a movement for the popularization of Marxist-Leninist science" among the masses to break the shackles of all religious superstitions.
Second, he advocated for the development of "commoner education" (平民教育, píngmín jiàoyù). Qu Qiubai believed that the ruling class's monopoly on intellectual education caused the masses to remain conservative and ignorant, which allowed theurgical ideas and feudal superstitions to spread widely. He pointed out that in the theological age, the "private ownership of knowledge" had already "developed to its most complete state." Religious leaders and scholars took the knowledge created collectively by all of humanity as "their own," turning it into "dogmas, schools, house rules, and secret transmissions" to maintain a monopoly, resulting in "those with little knowledge having even less, and those with much knowledge having even more." Ultimately, this caused those with little knowledge to "abandon their spiritual life and lose their capacity to seek knowledge," thereby falling victim to the deception of religious theism. Qu Qiubai believed that only by "implementing commoner education," "making everyone literate and knowledgeable about politics, and enabling workers and peasants to enter universities to pursue advanced studies," could the masses break free from the shackles of religious theism through the improvement of their cultural knowledge. Furthermore, in June 1923, in the "Draft Program of the Communist Party of China" he authored, Qu Qiubai included "the implementation of compulsory education and the absolute separation of education from religion" as one of the minimum programs of the CPC. This became one of the earliest visible policy regulations of the CPC regarding the handling of education and religious issues.
Third, carrying out a cultural revolution. As an initiator and founding figure of the early Marxist cultural theory of the Communist Party of China (CPC), Qu Qiubai deeply realized throughout his process of cultural research and creation that "the laboring masses of China still live a medieval cultural life—storytelling, historical romances, street singing, peep-shows, picture books, and opera on straw stages… everywhere, the Chinese gentry-bourgeoisie use these forms of mass literature and art as tools to implement their slave education upon the laboring masses." This reactionary mass literature and art "manifests the dominance of feudal consciousness" and invisibly becomes an obstacle to the growth of revolutionary class consciousness. Therefore, he believed it was necessary to launch a "genuine cultural movement of the masses—to overthrow the superstitions of Confucianism, Buddhism, Taoism, and the like, as well as all ideological shackles of patriarchal society [16], and to oppose the ideological influence of the bourgeoisie and the rich peasants." Furthermore, he pointed out that in carrying out a Soviet cultural revolution, one must, on the one hand, maintain a "resolute proletarian stand" and strive to create revolutionary mass literature and art to replace reactionary forms; on the other hand, one must "propagate Marxist-Leninist theory into the hearts of the broad masses." In addition, he noted that within this "new cultural revolution," there must be a "powerful contingent for revolutionary struggle" to "oppose all cultural shackles of feudal remnants, purge the influence of feudal remnants on the consciousness of the masses, and overthrow all servile ideology of imperialism and the comprador class [17]."
III. The Historical Contribution of Qu Qiubai’s Scientific Atheist Thought
As a Marxist, Qu Qiubai conducted in-depth research into Marxist atheism and applied it to the struggle against religious theology and feudal superstition in Chinese society, greatly promoting the dissemination and development of Marxist atheism in China. He consistently adhered to the materialist viewpoint to observe, analyze, and study religious theism, profoundly exposing its hypocritical veil and deepening people's understanding of the essence of religious theology and secular superstition. He played an important role in educating and guiding people to break free from the shackles of religious theism, thereby advancing the development of the proletarian revolutionary struggle.
First, by exposing and criticizing the essence of religious theism, Qu Qiubai provided a powerful ideological weapon for people to understand and oppose it. After the Opium War, with the invasion of imperialism, China gradually descended from a feudal society into a semi-colonial and semi-feudal society. This caused the ideology regarding ghosts and gods to take on the characteristics of a convergence between the ancient and the modern, and the Chinese and the foreign. On one hand, Chinese feudal theistic ideas such as the theory of the Mandate of Heaven [18], the divine right of kings, and secular superstitions continued to exist, and traditional theological ideas of Buddhism and Taoism remained prevalent. On the other hand, Western religious theology, shielded by unequal treaties, poured into China and spread wantonly. These various theistic ideas converged into a countercurrent that hindered the development of democracy and science in modern China. Especially after the failure of the 1911 Revolution, "with the rise of the trend of honoring Confucius and restoring the ancient ways, spiritualism and ideas of ghosts and gods became fashionable in Chinese society for a time." This led Qu Qiubai to realize that without stripping away the mysterious veil of theism and fiercely criticizing various theistic ideas, the goal of liberating the people's minds could not be achieved. To this end, Qu not only provided a detailed explanation of the origin, evolution, and eventual demise of religious theism, but also conducted a deep analysis of its essence and function, thoroughly exposing its absurdity and harm. This not only enabled people to gradually realize that "claims that the Heavenly Emperor, the ancestors, or Jesus will protect us" are merely tricks to deceive the masses, and that immortals, God, and demons "simply have no place in the material world," but also continuously stimulated the people's consciousness of resistance against theodicy. This played an important role in curbing the spread of religious theology and secular superstition among the people at that time.
Second, through in-depth theoretical research and practical exploration of Marxist atheism, Qu Qiubai promoted its dissemination and development in China. As a renowned theorist and propagandist within the Party, he regarded the propagation and development of Marxist atheism as an important mission during the early period of spreading Marxism. On the one hand, Qu utilized his proficiency in the Russian language to translate works containing Marxist atheist thought as his weapon. He successively translated and published August Bebel’s Socialization of Society, Ivan Skvortsov-Stepanov’s The Social Outlook of the Russian Proletariat, Mikhail Gorev’s Philosophy of the Proletariat: Materialism, and Franz Mehring’s Historical Materialism, as well as programmatic documents like the Program of the Communist International. These included not only comprehensive explanations of the Marxist atheist position and viewpoint, but also in-depth analyses of a series of basic questions regarding religious theism and the methods for eradicating it. He was among the first in China to systematically propagate Marxist atheism, playing a significant role in increasing its influence at the time. His translations were highly recognized; on December 24, 1943, Mao Zedong wrote a letter to Liu Shaoqi recommending the translation of Gorev’s Philosophy of the Proletariat: Materialism, saying: "Qu Qiubai once translated Gorev’s Materialism; I have read it, and it is quite good." On the other hand, Qu actively based himself on China’s actual national conditions, writing works such as An Introduction to Social Philosophy, Modern Sociology, An Introduction to Social Science, An Overview of the Materialist Worldview, The Chinese Revolution and the Communist Party of China, The Chinese Revolution and the Tactics of the Peasant Movement, and The Soviet Cultural Revolution. These works focused on exposing and criticizing the essence of religious theology and secular superstition, providing a dialectical analysis of their social roles and researching the close connection between religious theology and idealism. Furthermore, he explored how to lead the masses to break free from the shackles of theocratic superstition under the social conditions of that time. This not only further enriched the ideological content of Marxist atheism but also effectively pushed forward the Sinicization of Marxist atheism.
Third, through his reflections on how to eradicate religious theism, Qu Qiubai provided important references for the early CPC’s exploration of atheist propaganda and education, as well as the handling of religious issues. To broadly unite and mobilize all revolutionary forces, he attached great importance to educating and guiding the masses to break free from the shackles of theocratic thought and secular superstition, believing that "this is the cause of the masses, and it is the responsibility of the advanced elements to lead the masses." Consequently, Qu led by example, basing his work on the reality of Chinese society. He conducted deep analyses of the social role, manifestations, influence, and hazards of religious theism at the time. He believed that only under the leadership of the proletariat—through the promotion of scientific truth, the development of commoner education, and the carrying out of a cultural revolution—could the masses achieve ideological liberation in the process of improving their scientific and cultural knowledge, thereby "achieving the broadest and freest development" and liberating themselves from religious superstition with a strong sense of revolutionary struggle. At the same time, Qu formed specific practical insights based on his careful study and summation of revolutionary struggle experience. Not only did he strongly identify with the practice of Hunan peasants during the 1927 movement in breaking theocratic shackles by "overthrowing the Jade Emperor, the Primordial Heavenly Revered, the City God of the Capital, the local City Gods, the Earth God, the Five Holy Gods, and the Great Fox Spirit," but he also clearly proposed using the "strength of the proletarian revolutionary movement" to sweep away "superstitious old-style organizations" like the Gelaohui [19] and the Sandianhui [20] and to "harness their masses" to strengthen the forces of revolutionary struggle. Moreover, while serving as the People's Commissar for Education in the Soviet Area [21], Qu encouraged and required that Lenin Primary Schools, vocational middle schools, and short-term normal schools "must become local cultural centers," organizing student propaganda teams to "constantly carry out struggles against feudal superstition and reactionary consciousness among the broad masses." These beneficial reflections, which accorded with the reality of the Chinese revolutionary struggle, provided useful references for the CPC’s atheist propaganda and education at the time. Additionally, through his analysis of the conditions for the disappearance of religion, Qu recognized that religion would continue to exist in Chinese society for a long time. Therefore, while serving as an early leader of the Party, he proposed ideas for handling religious issues, such as the "absolute separation of education and religion," "the separation of religion from foreign-run mission schools, all of which should be registered with the local government," and the realization of "true equality for citizens of the laboring class, regardless of gender, religion, nationality, or intellectual level" under Soviet power. All of these provided important inspirations for the CPC’s subsequent practice in handling religious issues.
IV. Conclusion
As an outstanding early Marxist theorist of the Communist Party of China, Qu Qiubai was a pioneer in disseminating and developing Marxist atheism. Based on the specific national conditions of modern China as a semi-colonial and semi-feudal society, he persisted in using dialectical materialism and historical materialism to refute religious theism. He not only profoundly exposed its reactionary class essence and negative social effects through scientific explanations of its formation and development but also pointed out the practical direction for the masses to break free from theological shackles and eradicate secular superstition through the summation and reflection of historical experience. He formed a rich system of scientific atheist thought with distinct characteristics of the era, making great contributions to promoting the Sinicization of Marxist atheism and enriching its ideological content. In today's increasingly complex ideological struggle, various theistic trends are influencing people's minds in more concealed ways. Deeply exploring Qu Qiubai’s scientific atheist thought possesses important practical significance for strengthening scientific research and propaganda of Marxist atheism in the New Era, and for curbing the spread of theistic ideas and secular superstitions.