Li Weijian and Yin Di: The Globalist Implications of Persisting in the Direction of Sinicizing Religions in China
In May 2015, at the Central United Front Work Conference, General Secretary Xi Jinping clearly stated: "To actively guide religions to adapt to socialist society, we must persist in the direction of Sinicization." In April 2016, at the National Conference on Religious Work, General Secretary Xi Jinping pointed out again: "An important task in actively guiding religions to adapt to socialist society is to support the religions of our country in persisting in the direction of Sinicization." Since the proposal of "persisting in the direction of Sinicization of religions in our country," it has attracted widespread attention, leading to extensive research, reflection, and discussion in academic circles, both domestically and abroad. Abroad, many papers on the Sinicization of religion have been published; in Europe, a collection of essays titled Sinicization of Religion in China: Sinicization from Above and Sinicization from Below was released. Some of these studies offer relatively objective and valuable analyses of religious Sinicization, while others do not.
Compared to the academic and neutral nature of research on the internal connotations of religious Sinicization, international research on policies related to "persisting in the direction of Sinicization of religions in our country" carries a heavier color of value judgment and increased political considerations; some even adopt a critical attitude. To summarize, one "basic conclusion" of the critics is: the Chinese government uses the policy of religious Sinicization to promote the secularization and Sinization [1] of Chinese religions, achieving the goals of containment, persecution, control, assimilation, or even the elimination of religion. Others proceed from criticizing the Sinicization policy to criticizing Chinese religious policy as a whole, arguing that China's religious policy is actually aimed at suppressing religion and promoting atheism. The basic logic these "studies" attempt to express is that China's religious Sinicization policy is localized, unique, and eccentric; that it fails to respect religion and its culture, interferes with the freedom of religious belief, and deviates from global trends of religious development and principles of global religious governance. Obviously, this criticism lacks an understanding of religious reality and policy in China; it is erroneous and a departure from the facts. To clarify these mistaken views, one can employ various analytical perspectives; the following will focus specifically on the perspective of globalism to analyze the globalist connotations of religious Sinicization. While the direction is Sinicization—which indeed has regional connotations—it is simultaneously a religious policy formulated under full consideration of current globalization trends, possessing rich globalist significance. There is no contradiction between the localized and globalist connotations of Sinicization.
I. "Persisting in the Direction of Sinicization of Religions in Our Country" Accords with the Objective Laws of Religious Development
Research in Marxist religious studies and global religious history shows that religious localization is an objective law of religious development. Religion is part of the superstructure and is determined by the economic base. Religion is a product of real society; it is humans who created religion, not the reverse [2], and it is social reality that drives religious evolution. In short, as society changes, religion—as a part of society—changes with it. Social realities across the globe are diverse, and religions based on these realities are also diverse. Therefore, religion is closely related to the social environment and economic conditions in which people live, possessing characteristics defined by both locality and era. In On the History of Early Christianity, Engels proposed the "cloak theory" regarding the social role of religion; under different social conditions, the role of religion as a "cloak" possesses diversity and complexity across different places and historical stages. Thus, religions around the world will take on different forms and exist at different stages of development due to differing local social environments; these are the localized characteristics of religion. During the expansion of global religions, they must seek survival within diverse social environments. Diverse social realities inevitably forge different religious forms. Therefore, religious localization is an inevitable law. For example, Islam in Africa exhibits many differences compared to Islam in West Asia or East Asia; the same is true for Christianity and Buddhism worldwide.
In addition to the constraints of locality, religious localization is also constrained by the era. If localized factors are ignored, the historical development of a single region appears linear; when localized factors are added, the historical development of various parts of the globe is not synchronized. The dual constraints of time and place determine the multi-linear characteristics of religious historical development. Therefore, the localization of religion naturally contains its "epochalization" (adapting to the era). If a religion adapted to a certain region refuses localized changes when moving to another region, not only will its development be hindered, but for those regions, it may result in religious and social conflicts, including religious extremism, terrorism, and separatism. If a religion refuses to modernize with the times, stubbornly clinging to historical classics and remaining pedantic [3], it may similarly lead to religious and social conflict. If a religion wishes to develop, it must localize and adapt to the era; this is a global law.
Foreign research on Chinese religion has long featured the theme of localization, though it has mostly been academic. These results mainly comprise literature on Chinese Buddhism, Christianity, and Islam studied from the perspective of the Sinicization of foreign religions. Since the "Sinicization of religion" policy was proposed, the political coloring of this research has gradually intensified. Some scholars divide "religious Sinicization" into "Sinicization from above" and "Sinicization from below." "Sinicization from below" refers to Sinicization in the Western sense—including scientific and theological meanings—namely, the indigenization, localization, and cultural fusion of religion, which does not differ from previous academic research. "Sinicization from above," however, refers to the Chinese government's mandatory requirement that religions adapt to modern Chinese society, essentially requiring religions to be "obedient" and submissive to the government. Clearly, this "research" is no longer pure religious scholarship but possesses a political-research coloring. Nevertheless, whether academic or political, foreign scholars generally acknowledge that the Sinicization of religion accords with the laws of religious development; this is a basic research premise.
In fact, the Sinicization of religion in our country is itself a respect for the global laws of localization and modernization in the process of religious development. At the National Conference on Religious Work in December 2021, General Secretary Xi Jinping emphasized again: "Persist in the direction of Sinicization of religions in our country, and actively guide religions to adapt to socialist society." Actively guiding religions to adapt to socialist society and the New Era of socialism with Chinese characteristics clearly includes respect for the laws of religious development. Religion must adapt to the development of the state and society, continuously serving current Chinese reality through innovation, remaining in sync with social development and on the same frequency as the times. It must strive to adapt to the New Era of socialism with Chinese characteristics, finding its position through a dynamic practical process to become a harmonious factor in social construction and a positive force in national construction. From the perspective of religious governance, these requirements the government places on religion are reasonable, legal, and compliant; they are policies that respect the laws of religious development.
II. "Persisting in the Direction of Sinicization of Religions in Our Country" Directly Faces Global Religious Realities
Religion profoundly influences people’s ideas and activities and widely affects the world today. Most of the world's population holds religious beliefs; religious tenets and rules shape believers' values and regulate their daily lives to varying degrees. The globalized characteristics of religion are becoming increasingly prominent. Simultaneously, world religious development is showing new trends. Christianity and Islam continue to expand through mutual competition, while the influence of other religions is relatively decreasing. In this process, no religion can avoid the challenges of globalization; the trend of religious globalization is developing in depth.
In the process of globalization, religious conservatism and religious revival movements are also rebounding, creating a contradiction with the trend of religious globalization. Religious conservatism and revivalism demand strict adherence to scriptures, a return to religious hierarchies, and the cherishing of the traditions and values of a religion's place of origin; religious globalization, however, forces religions to respect local traditions, adapt to the times, and seek localized paths of development. When this contradiction is difficult to reconcile, religious social risks arise, leading to rampant religious extremism and terrorism in some parts of the world today. At the same time, the globalization and large-scale nature of religious migration, along with the difficulties religious groups face in cultural integration, constitute a new global issue, strengthening the contradiction between religious tradition and locality. New religious trends are surging, not only causing internal religious strife but also intensifying the struggle between religionism and secularism. Constant disputes occur between different religions and within religions themselves, with no significant reduction in disagreements over doctrine or rules. In some regions, the contradiction between the religious and the non-religious has become more severe. These contradictions and conflicts related to religious issues are essentially the result of failing to properly handle the challenges of localization and modernization in the era of globalization.
"Persisting in the direction of Sinicization of religions in our country" directly faces the reality of frequent global religious conflicts and contributes Chinese wisdom and Chinese solutions to the understanding and handling of religious issues. China is also a victim of global religious instability and conflict; the penetration of religious extremism, terrorism, "Pan-Islamism" and "Pan-Turkism" [4], and heretical Christian trends have extended international religious problems into parts of our country. Trends of "de-Sinicization" and "counter-Sinicization" in the religious field pose a threat to our traditional culture and mainstream values. As a secular state where the vast majority of the population does not believe in religion, China possesses particularities in understanding and handling religious issues; there are no precedents to follow, so we must explore for ourselves. This requires China's religious policy to follow a path of socialism with Chinese characteristics suited to our national conditions. "Persisting in the direction of Sinicization of religions in our country" is an exploration and innovation of our religious policy. Because religious localization is both a means of religious proselytization and an objective law of religious development, the proposal of "persisting in the direction of Sinicization of religion" was bound to attract attention and controversy; this was expected. Therefore, proposing this policy required political courage. Of course, our country adheres to the principle of separation of church and state; our Party’s proposal of this policy is by no means for the purpose of proselytization. Rather, it adopts "persisting in the direction of Sinicization of religions in our country" as a religious policy to—on the premise of respecting the laws of religious development—guide matters according to circumstances [5], ensuring that religious development does not conflict with Chinese society, preventing and resolving risks and hidden dangers in the religious field, and guiding religions to adapt to a society of socialism with Chinese characteristics.
Therefore, the Sinicization policy does not only face Chinese reality; it also faces the complex reality of global religious development. To a certain extent, the problems and challenges China faces in the religious field are extensions of international religious issues. The "de-Sinicization" trends and extremism in Chinese religion are all external imports; hence, China's religious issues also possess global significance. "Persisting in the direction of Sinicization of religions in our country" is a response to the reality of religious development in China and a response to global religious reality, possessing global significance.
III. "Persisting in the Direction of Sinicization of Religions in Our Country" Is Not Inconsistent with the Policy of Freedom of Religious Belief
Freedom of religious belief is a policy widely implemented by countries worldwide, but there is significant controversy over how to understand and practice the principle. This is because different subjects, based on different positions, do not understand freedom of religious belief in exactly the same way, leading to differences in practice. In China, freedom of religious belief must follow the principle of balancing freedom and rights; freedom of religious belief is conditional upon not infringing on the private or public freedoms and legal rights of others. Engaging in religious extremism, terrorism, or separatist activities in the name of religious freedom obviously violates the policy of freedom of religious belief. Conversely, it is also wrong to view counter-terrorism, de-radicalization, and anti-separatist work as infringements on individual freedom of religious belief. Therefore, when anti-China forces at home and abroad slander our country's counter-terrorism and de-radicalization work as an infringement of religious freedom, they are essentially using religious freedom as a tool to interfere in China's internal affairs. The "de-Sinicization" trend in Chinese religion is, in essence, religious extremism. Opposing and cracking down on religious extremism and terrorism are internationally recognized as legitimate actions. The resolution "Declaration on Measures to Eliminate International Terrorism" adopted by the UN General Assembly in 1994 stipulates that religion cannot be used as an excuse for terrorism and that such acts "are in any circumstances unjustifiable." The "Declaration on Global Efforts to Combat Terrorism," adopted by the UN General Assembly in 2001, calls for "all States, international and regional organizations to participate and collaborate actively and to redouble their efforts at the national level to defeat terrorism." "Persisting in the direction of Sinicization of religions in our country" must first be carried out under the premise of eliminating the "Three Forces" [6] and curbing the de-Sinicized religious trends. The policy of "persisting in the direction of Sinicization of religions in our country" is a religious policy that follows UN international conventions and possesses globalist connotations.
The localization of religion is an objective law of religious development. During the early period of British colonial rule in India, British missionaries attempting to spread Christianity in the Indian highlands found that it was not accepted by the Indian people. Gradually, missionaries adjusted their methods and adopted a strategy of "Indianizing" Christianity, which unexpectedly achieved a degree of success. Based on this experience, missionaries summarized a set of laws regarding the localization of proselytization. The "Rites Controversy" [7] in the history of Catholicism in China similarly reflects the law of localization or proselytization: foreign religions can only be accepted by the Chinese people if they undergo localization.
Consequently, spontaneous phenomena of religious Sinicization have existed throughout Chinese history and in contemporary reality. Sinicization became a mode of survival and development for foreign religions in China; whether Buddhism, Islam, or Christianity, all have undergone varying degrees of Sinicization in China. From a religious perspective, religious Sinicization is an inherent demand for a religion’s own survival and development. "Upholding the direction of the Sinicization of religions in our country" is, first and foremost, a manifestation of respecting religion, respecting personages in religious circles and the masses of religious believers, and respecting the laws of religious development. Precisely for this reason, the conclusions of those who claim that Sinicization is a violation of the freedom of religious belief are untenable. From the perspective of government governance, "upholding the direction of the Sinicization of religions in our country" is a form of external guidance. It constitutes the government helping religions achieve Sinicization more smoothly and preventing religious processes from triggering social risks, as has occurred in history. Therefore, this policy is neither about developing religion nor is it an infringement on the freedom of religious belief; rather, it is precisely a manifestation of the government’s respect for the freedom of religious belief. When foreign religions conflict with other Chinese religions, or when they are influenced by international religious trends during the Sinicization process and exhibit "de-Sinicization" phenomena, social risks are triggered—of which there is no lack of examples in Chinese history. Thus, from the standpoint of social governance, "upholding the direction of the Sinicization of religions in our country" is beyond reproach. It is not an interference in the freedom of religious belief, but rather a respect for the universal principle of freedom of religious belief.
IV. "Upholding the direction of the Sinicization of religions in our country" conforms to the universal evolutionary direction of religious modernism
Religious modernism has been the basic evolutionary path for all major global religions since the beginning of the modern era. Religions are typically viewed as representative forces of conservatism and tradition, burdened with excessive traditional connotations. However, religious reforms and even revolutions frequently occur to adapt to social development. Religious modernism is an innovation upon religious traditionalism. While the modernist trend in religious philosophy emerged within European Christianity in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the religious reforms of European modernity occurred much earlier, developing almost simultaneously with the modern bourgeois revolutions in Europe. The modernist reforms of various religions in China roughly originated during China's modern era of anti-imperialist and anti-feudal revolution. Consequently, against the macro-background of modern China’s resistance against imperialism and aggression, Chinese Islam, Buddhism, Taoism, and Confucianism all consciously embarked on the path of modernism.
The 1958 democratic reform of the religious system [8] was a government-promoted reform toward modernism for Chinese Islam and Tibetan Buddhism, accelerating the evolution of Chinese religions in a modernist direction. On a global scale, modernism has become the universal direction for religious development. Rejection of modernism and the blind return to religious traditions are trends of revivalism and extremism. Only by adhering to modernism and viewing their own traditions from a developmental perspective can religions keep pace with the development of modern society.
China, as a country of socialism with Chinese characteristics, is a modernist China. "Upholding the direction of the Sinicization of religions in our country" means guiding traditional religions to better adapt to modern Chinese society and follow the path of modernism. For a century, Chinese Communists have united and led the people of the whole country in struggle for the purpose of building a modern China. We have long been committed to the construction of the "Four Modernizations." [9] The first session of the First National People's Congress (NPC) held in 1954 clearly proposed the task of achieving the Four Modernizations in industry, agriculture, transport, and national defense. The first session of the Third NPC, held from late 1964 to early 1965, proposed the grand goal of the "Four Modernizations" and announced that the main task for future national economic development was to build China into a powerful socialist country with modern agriculture, modern industry, modern national defense, and modern science and technology within a relatively short historical period. In 2021, at the ceremony marking the centenary of the founding of the Communist Party of China, General Secretary Xi Jinping put forward the important thesis of "Chinese-path modernization" and proposed that the central task of the CPC from then on would be to unite and lead the people of all ethnic groups in the country to fully build a great modern socialist country, achieve the Second Centenary Goal, and comprehensively promote the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation through Chinese-path modernization. The Socialist Core Values and the essence of fine traditional Chinese culture are both consistent with modernist thought. In the New Era, upholding the direction of the Sinicization of religions in our country essentially means guiding religions to take the path of modernism, which is consistent with the evolutionary direction of global religious modernism.
It must be specifically noted that religious modernism possesses a religious character; it is the modernization and "temporalization" (shidaihua) [10] of religion, and the choice made by religion to seek survival and development within the context of modernization. Meanwhile, "upholding the direction of the Sinicization of religions in our country" is carried out under the premise of respecting the freedom of religious belief. It fully utilizes the commonalities between secular political modernism and religious modernism to develop a shared discourse, cultivate common aspirations, and jointly follow the path of socialist modernization.
V. "Upholding the direction of the Sinicization of religions in our country" adheres to the universal principle of respecting fine traditional culture
The Chinese nation has always cherished national traditions and inherited and developed fine traditional Chinese culture. As early as over two thousand years ago, Xunzi said, "When a state is about to flourish, it must value its teachers and emphasize tradition" (from Xunzi: Dalue). [11] "Emphasizing tradition" means respecting tradition. Regarding fine traditional culture, the Communist Party of China has always respected the laws of cultural development, adhering to the principles of "making the past serve the present and making foreign things serve China," dialectical selection, and "weeding through the old to bring forth the new," discarding negative factors while inheriting and developing positive ones. In his important speech at the ceremony marking the centenary of the CPC, General Secretary Xi Jinping proposed the "Two Combinations," [12] the "second" of which is the insistence on combining the basic tenets of Marxism with fine traditional Chinese culture. General Secretary Xi Jinping regards fine traditional culture as the root of the Chinese nation, stating: "The fine traditional Chinese culture created and continued by the Chinese nation over thousands of years is the root and soul of the Chinese nation," and emphasizing that "the extensive and profound fine traditional Chinese culture is the foundation upon which we stand firm amidst the turbulence of global cultures." In fact, not only China but all countries in the world, regardless of race or ethnicity, cherish their own traditions and promote their fine traditional cultures. Cherishing tradition and promoting fine traditional culture have become universally observed principles for all countries and nations in the world.
"Upholding the direction of the Sinicization of religions in our country" adheres to respecting and carrying forward fine traditional culture. On the one hand, "upholding the direction of the Sinicization of religions in our country" is established on the premise of respecting fine traditional Chinese culture. The content that needs to be "Sinicized" is rich—including religious thought, religious rituals, and religious ethics—and respecting fine traditional Chinese culture is one of these components. In Chinese history, Buddhism, Christianity, and Islam all experienced conflicts and setbacks regarding how to coexist with Chinese culture, eventually finding the way through exploration: namely, adjusting themselves to adapt to and absorb Chinese traditional culture, striving to make themselves a part of Chinese culture. In the New Era, upholding the direction of the Sinicization of religions in our country necessitates using Socialist Core Values as guidance and using Chinese culture to "soak and nourish" (jinrun) [13] the various religions in our country. On the other hand, "upholding the direction of the Sinicization of religions in our country" is established on the premise of respecting the own traditions of each religion. Religious Sinicization is not forced assimilation; respecting the freedom of religious belief is the fundamental prerequisite. Religions also face the challenges of localization and adaptation to the times. The policy of religious Sinicization guides religions to give play to their own positive factors and to pass down content that is consistent with fine traditional Chinese culture and the themes of the New Era, so that religions can better correspond with socialist society.
Therefore, the policy of guiding the Sinicization of religions respects both fine traditional Chinese culture and the fine traditions of the religions themselves. Those arguments alleging that "upholding the direction of the Sinicization of religions in our country" is religious persecution or cultural genocide are fundamentally untenable.
VI. The reference significance of "upholding the direction of the Sinicization of religions in our country" for global religious governance
As the globalization of religion develops in depth, religious governance has become both a task faced by every country and a part of global governance. Religious issues possess a particular complexity. They are inextricably linked to politics, ethnicity, and culture. Even today, when the separation of church and state has become the mainstream of church-state relations, there is no shortage of countries with varying degrees of the "union of church and state." With the rise of religious revival movements, religious extremism and terrorism have gradually become global hazards. In many countries and regions, religious issues have become the greatest security challenge. The complexity of religious issues determines the complexity and diversity of religious work; every country has the right to explore religious governance solutions that fit its own national conditions. Religious governance is not merely about governing religion; the relevant efforts also lie "outside of religion." Currently, religious governance has become a worldwide problem, testing both national governance capacity and global governance capacity.
The Communist Party of China adheres to the Marxist view of religion. For over a hundred years, our Party has consistently persisted in promoting the Sinicization and "temporalization" of the Marxist view of religion, continuously summarizing fresh experiences in religious work and forming the Party's basic policy on religious work and the "Nine Musts" [14] of religious work. Comparing horizontally with other countries, our country's religious work is successful. At present, many countries suffer from poor governance of religious issues, leading to long-term turmoil, national division, or even loss of political power. Some political forces have long slandered our country's religious policies while their own national religious work is in a total mess, with chaos rife in the religious field.
"Upholding the direction of the Sinicization of religions in our country" is the concrete manifestation of the policy of guiding religions to adapt to socialist society, providing the foundation and guarantee for such adaptation. This is an innovative development of the Party's theory of religious work in the New Era. The success of this policy has led many countries around the world to follow suit. Although many countries do not overtly have a "religious localization" policy, they actually guide the indigenization of their domestic religions through various means, the most typical of which is France. The French government requires all domestic religions to comply with the values of the French Republic and takes various administrative measures to promote religious deradicalization, even forcibly closing or dismantling mosques with extremist tendencies. On April 11, 2011, France’s "burqa ban" went into effect, making it illegal to wear a burqa in public. Following France's example, 13 European countries, including Denmark and Belgium, have banned women from wearing veils. The U.S. government does not ostensibly promote "Americanization" of religion, but it implements a policy of "separation of church and state," emphasizing the separation of religion and politics to safeguard so-called freedom of religious belief and promote the adaptation of religion to so-called American liberal values. It is an objective law of religious development that religion adapts to its social environment through localization, and the adaptation of a country’s religion to that country's mainstream values is a basic direction of religious localization. "Upholding the direction of the Sinicization of religions in our country" follows precisely these two basic laws of religious development and has reference significance for global religious governance.
VII. "Upholding the direction of the Sinicization of religions in our country": Both of China and of the world
Chinese religions possess characteristics distinct from Western religions. "Upholding the direction of the Sinicization of religions in our country" is a policy proposed specifically based on the developmental laws and realistic challenges of Chinese religion. The starting point of the policy is to dispel the "de-Sinicization" and "counter-Sinicization" trends in the religious field. The goal of the policy lies in "soaking and nourishing" Chinese religions with fine traditional Chinese culture and Socialist Core Values, reversing de-Sinicization trends, shaping the Chinese characteristics of Chinese religions, and guiding them to better adapt to a society of socialism with Chinese characteristics. Thus, "upholding the direction of the Sinicization of religions in our country" possesses a distinct historical background and Chinese characteristics.
However, "upholding the direction of the Sinicization of religions in our country" is by no means what certain international critics claim: a policy that merely emphasizes religious policy with Chinese characteristics and Chinese demands to suppress and persecute religion, promote the "Hanification" [15] of foreign religions, or violate the universal principles of freedom of religious belief. In fact, this policy simultaneously possesses a distinct worldliness and profound globalist implications; it fully respects the universal laws of both the religious and non-religious spheres and contains a globalist concern. This is manifested in at least several aspects: respecting the objective laws of religious development, facing global religious realities head-on, adhering to the policy of freedom of religious belief, respecting the universal evolutionary direction of religious modernism, and respecting the universal principles of excellent traditional culture. This policy serves as a reference for global religious governance and possesses global value. Therefore, behind the localized territorial expression of "upholding the direction of the Sinicization of religions in our country," there is a simultaneous global vision. In this sense, the policy of guiding the Sinicization of religion is both Chinese and of the world.
Those anti-China forces internationally who criticize and slander the policy of the Sinicization of religion are by no means truly concerned with freedom of religious belief or human rights in China; rather, they are concerned that the success of this policy will impact their own models of governance. The success of "upholding the direction of the Sinicization of religions in our country" instead proves the correctness of our country's religious policy. Facts have proven once again that the more something belongs to China, the more it possesses world-class charm and value. This reminds us that we must employ firm confidence in our path, theory, system, and culture [16] to unswervingly "uphold the direction of the Sinicization of religions in our country," and to properly uphold and apply the Party’s theory on religious work in the New Era, while also providing a beneficial reference for global religious governance.
(About the authors: Li Weijian is a Researcher at the Institute of World Religions of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences and a "Tianshan Scholar" Distinguished Professor at Xinjiang Normal University; Yin Di is a Master's student at the School of Politics and Law, Xinjiang Normal University.)
Internet Editor: Tongxin Source: Science and Atheism, Issue 3, 2024