Cao Dong: A Brief Analysis of Shao Yong's Atheistic Thought
Shao Yong (1011–1077), courtesy name Yaofu and posthumously titled Kangjie, was a native of Gongcheng, Henan (present-day Huixian). He was one of the "Five Masters of the Northern Song" and a pioneer of Song-Ming Neo-Confucianism. Currently, academic research regarding Northern Song atheistic thought is mostly concentrated on Zhang载 (Zhang Zhai) [1], with little attention paid to the atheistic thought of Shao Yong; indeed, most scholars regard him as a theist. When editing the Northern Song section of the History of Chinese Atheism, Ya Hanzhang and Wang Yousu studied only Zhang Zhai as an atheist, failing to include Neo-Confucians such as Shao Yong or the Cheng brothers [2]. They even dismissed Shao Yong’s learning as "preposterous talk" and "creationism." Hou Wailu went further, directly stating that Shao Yong’s concept of "spirit" (shen) ultimately "leads toward religion and provides a pretext for theism." He argued that Shao Yong used image-and-number [3] (xiangshu) studies to "castrate the substance of science" and arranged natural science to be the "handmaiden of theology," thereby constructing a theistic system. Chen Zhongfan argued that the different facets of Shao Yong’s "spirit" reflected pantheistic thought. Zhai Kuifeng distinguished six layers of meaning in Shao Yong’s "spirit" and emphasized that it constitutes a "rational god." In fact, whether "pantheism" or a "rational god," both interpretations indicate that Shao Yong negated the traditional concept of a deity as a personal god. In this sense, Shao Yong is an atheist. Dong Genhong proposed the concept of "Neo-Confucian atheism"; through an analysis of Shao Yong’s categories of "spirit," "heaven" (tian), and "mandate" (ming), he pointed out that Shao Yong's Neo-Confucian system is "essentially an atheistic system." From the above, we see that the academic community has either regarded Shao Yong as a theist—ignoring his atheistic thought—or categorized him as an atheist without conducting an analysis based on the standpoint of Marxist atheism.
Substantively, Shao Yong established his cosmological model on the foundation of the theory of qi [4], highly exalted human subjective agency, and critiqued traditional concepts of ghosts and spirits, forcefully counteracting secular beliefs in the supernatural. A systematic collation and interpretation of the connotation and function of "spirit" in Shao Yong’s work can allow people to clearly understand the atheistic content contained within his thought and clarify his historical contribution to the development of atheism.
I. The Formative Background of Shao Yong’s Atheistic Thought
The Neo-Confucian trend that rose in the mid-Northern Song was essentially a movement for the revival of Confucianism; Shao Yong’s Neo-Confucian thought was, in essence, a form of New Confucianism. Confucianism had declined due to its "theological transformation" by Han Dynasty Confucians and the impact of Buddhist and Daoist religions; its revival necessarily required the exclusion of the theological and shamanistic absurdities of Han Confucianism and the negation of Buddhist and Daoist religions. The theoretical basis for this opposition to religious theology came both from Confucianism itself and from the long-term development of the natural sciences. That is to say, the revival movement of New Confucianism substantively contained rich atheistic elements. Shao Yong's thought precisely took atheism as its basic principle and primary characteristic.
(1) Shao Yong was in the initial stage of Song-Ming New Confucianism
The rise of New Confucianism was directly targeted at the proliferation of the Buddhist and Daoist religions. Dong Zhongshu [5] transformed pre-Qin Confucianism to defend the feudal order, making Confucianism the "orthodox" thought of the two Han dynasties. From the Wei and Jin periods onward, the venerable status of Confucianism was continuously struck by the two teachings of Buddhism and Daoism. In the mid-Tang, Han Yu was the first to raise the great banner of reviving Confucianism. Although he advocated for extreme restrictive policies against Buddhism—"making their people into commoners, burning their books, and turning their dwellings into ordinary houses"—the tide of Buddhist and Daoist proliferation remained unchecked. The "other-worldly" lifestyle and value systems of the Buddhists and Daoists seriously harmed the Confucian political ethics of the "Three Bonds and Five Constant Virtues" [6] and endangered the feudal ruling order. Buddhism and Daoism not only deluded a large number of the lower classes with theories of samsara (reincarnation) and the pursuit of immortality, but also won the hearts of countless Confucian scholars with their theoretical systems regarding worldviews and self-cultivation. Northern Song Confucians were soberly aware that the unprecedented threat facing Confucianism came from Buddha and Laozi. The two Chengs once said: "I have encountered many people, and those who are not 'mixed' [with heterodoxy] are but three: Zhang Zihou (Zhang Zhai), Shao Yaofu (Shao Yong), and Sima Junshi (Sima Guang)." This meant that under heaven, only these three still strictly adhered to the Confucian Way, "standing firm and unconfused," while all others were contaminated by the religious content of Buddha and Laozi. Rejecting Buddha and Laozi to clarify and illuminate Confucianism was the direct desire of the scholars who initiated the New Confucian movement at that time. Therefore, scholars like Zhang Zhai and Shao Yong profoundly critiqued the Buddhist and Daoist worldviews of "emptiness" and "nothingness," their theories of mind-nature cultivation, and their lore of ghosts and spirits, seeking to realize the revival of Confucianism. Among them, Shao Yong went further, "neither flattering Zen masters nor fawning over Daoist alchemists," and regarding "the affairs of Buddha and Laozi, his mouth never spoke of them; he knew of them but remained silent," demonstrating a resolute attitude of resistance toward Buddhist and Daoist religious thought.
Furthermore, New Confucianism was a critique of "theologized" Confucianism. During the Western Han, Dong Zhongshu draped Confucianism in "theological" clothing; he "aligned the Heaven of nature with the 'Heaven' of religion" and absorbed and distorted the pre-Qin theory of qi and the theory of Yin-Yang and the Five Elements to establish a complete theological-teleological theoretical system of "telepathic resonance between Heaven and humanity" (tianren ganying). Subsequently, the theology of the weishu [7] (apocryphal texts) and the theological system within the Comprehensive Discussions in the White Tiger Hall (Baihu Tongyi) were continuations of this new theological system. Although theologized Confucianism was critiqued in the Han by figures like Huan Tan and Wang Chong, and struck by "Arcane Learning" (Xuanxue) during the Wei and Jin, it continued to linger in the shallow and absurd theologization of the two Hans until the Tang due to the protection of rulers and the promotion by official classical scholars. This shallow and absurd theologized Confucianism could no longer win over people's hearts; in particular, the objects of faith for elite "wise men" had shifted from Confucianism to Buddha and Laozi because "the followers of the Buddha are specialized and profound in their learning," and much of Buddhist content was "extremely exquisite." Thus, to restore faith in the Confucian Way, it was necessary to strengthen the speculative nature of Confucianism. This meant using the rational power of enhanced speculation and logic to internally expel absurd and dogmatic theological content, transforming theologized Confucianism into philosophized Confucianism. In other words, strengthening the speculative nature of Confucianism was substantively a negation of old theological concepts such as "telepathic resonance between Heaven and humanity" and the weishu apocrypha. It was during this period that the various Northern Song Confucians, including Shao Yong, while critiquing theologized Confucianism, simultaneously absorbed the speculative essence of Buddhism and Daoism to establish a "compatible and open academic system with Confucianism as the mainstay and 'nature and the Way of Heaven' as the guiding principles, incorporating Buddha and Laozi into Confucianism."
(2) Shao Yong was in a stage of rapid development of natural science
Natural science takes the exploration of natural laws as its duty. "In its long process of development, it not only formed various systems of knowledge but also gave birth to a scientific spirit characterized by a reality-seeking spirit, a skeptical spirit, and a critical spirit, which directly promoted the emergence of atheism." This scientific spirit is the natural enemy of theism. Ancient Chinese natural science budded during the Three Dynasties; its foundation was laid during the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods; its basic system was formed in the Han dynasty, where the five major disciplines of mathematics, astronomy, geography, agronomy, and medicine each acquired their own scientific paradigms; it continued to develop from the Wei-Jin through the Sui-Tang periods, during which the five disciplines all progressed to varying degrees—notably producing a large volume of mathematical works as well as the major inventions of woodblock printing and gunpowder; in the Song and Yuan periods, ancient natural science reached its peak, producing many highly accomplished scientists. Among them, Shen Kuo, a near-contemporary of Shao Yong, achieved the most prominent results. His research involved mathematics, astronomy and calendars, geography, meteorology, physics, chemistry, and medicine, leading Joseph Needham to call him "the most extraordinary figure in the entire history of Chinese science." Besides Shen Kuo, figures like Jia Xian and Liu Yi promoted the development of ancient mathematics; Zhang Sixun and Su Song further improved astronomical instruments; and works like the Record of the World in the Taiping Era (Taiping Huanyu Ji) and the Treatise on the Nine Cities of the Yuanfeng Era (Yuanfeng Jiucheng Zhi) can be called monumental masterpieces of geography. It was precisely because of the rapid development of natural science during the Northern Song that atheistic thought was able to advance further.
During the Northern Song, natural science made huge strides in terms of achievements, research methods, and levels of cognition, providing rich intellectual resources for the formation of Neo-Confucianism. Although the Neo-Confucians were not professional natural scientists, they all possessed relatively rich natural science knowledge. Regarding technological achievements, astronomical knowledge in particular was widely absorbed by Neo-Confucians. Regarding research methods, they began with personal observation and field investigation, using factual materials as the basis for verification, which evolved into a rudimentary scientific experimental method; this directly influenced the formation of the Neo-Confucians’ epistemological methods. Furthermore, Song dynasty natural science, "on the basis of previous descriptions of natural phenomena, had begun to explore deeper regularities, moving from 'knowing what is' to 'knowing why it is so.'" Natural scientists at this time believed that all things in the natural world contained "principle" (li) [8]. Based on the cognition of the principle of nature, they were not satisfied with simple descriptions of natural phenomena but sought to further grasp the natural laws behind the phenomena—that is, "tracing the principle to its source." "Principle" is the order and regularity of things and has nothing to do with spiritual phenomena; using "principle" to explain natural phenomena is, in a sense, a negation of the original theism. This "principle" was one of the central topics discussed by Neo-Confucians; for example, Shao Yong emphasized the "study of the principles of things" (wuli zhi xue). This is the study of exploring the principles and rules of all things, putting in effort upon the myriad things to seek knowledge of their principles. Although the "study of the principles of things" differs from "physics" in the sense of modern science, it highlights his side of exploring natural laws and cognizing objective objects. The era in which Shao Yong lived was the peak of the development of ancient natural science; the achievements and research methods of natural science provided important ideological resources for the formation of his atheism to varying degrees.
II. The Primary Manifestations of Shao Yong’s Atheistic Thought
Based on the development process of Confucianism and natural science, Shao Yong critiqued the theologized Confucianism of the two Hans and the religious content of Buddha and Laozi. He absorbed the speculative essence of Buddha and Laozi, as well as the results and methods of natural science, to establish a New Confucian system with qi as its foundation, critiquing previous theological views on ghosts and spirits and exalting human subjective agency. The New Confucian system constructed by Shao Yong is rich in atheistic content.
(1) An Analysis of Cosmological Generation based on the Theory of Qi
Ancient Chinese atheism mostly used the theory of qi as its theoretical basis to critique theism and negate theological worldviews because the theory of qi stands in contrast to the illusory nature of theism, primarily representing the reality of this world. On the basis of inheriting traditional qi theory, Shao Yong proposed that the qi which serves as the origin is the "undifferentiated oneness" (hunlun wei yi) of the dual qi of Yin and Yang. This qi possesses a marvelous and unfathomable function of transformation; the myriad things are born of qi and move because of qi. That is, the existence and change of all things in the world take qi as their basis.
The dual qi of Yin and Yang, undifferentiated as "One Qi," possesses the marvelous function of generating and transforming all things. Shao Yong said: "Essentially it is One Qi; when it grows it becomes Yang, and when it diminishes it becomes Yin"; "as soon as the One Qi is divided, the two poles [Heaven and Earth] are prepared. That which is round is Heaven, and that which is square is Earth"; "the Great Ultimate [9] (Taiji) is one; motionless, it produces two; the two are then 'spirit' (shen)." Regarding this, the scholar Zhang Xingcheng explained: "The Great Ultimate is the One Qi; when the qi grows it advances and becomes Yang, and when it diminishes it retreats and becomes Yin." Shao Yong believed that the "Great Ultimate" is essentially "One Qi," the source of the generation and transformation of the myriad things. Furthermore, he pointed out that "the Way (Dao) is the Great Ultimate," and "the Way and the One are but forced names for 'spirit.'" That is to say, the category of "Great Ultimate" has various appellations such as "the Way," "the One," and "spirit," but behind these different names, they all point to the "One Qi." The "Great Ultimate One Qi," as the source of the generation of all things in the universe, is the undifferentiated oneness of the dual qi of Yin and Yang. Since the dual qi of Yin and Yang manifest the marvelous function of generating Heaven, Earth, and the myriad things, it is called "spirit." This is the great virtue of the ontological substance—that is, the transformative function possessed by the dual qi of Yin and Yang. The marvelous use of "spirit" is also reflected in its function of motion and stillness (dong jing); "motion and stillness" are also the "marvelous use of the Great Ultimate." The Great Ultimate produced Yin and Yang through the changes of motion and stillness: "When motion begins, Yang is born; when motion reaches its limit, Yin is born." The Great Ultimate is the undifferentiated qi before Yin and Yang are separated; this undifferentiated qi, through motion or stillness, differentiates into the dual qi of Yin and Yang. The dual qi are divisions of the One Qi, not separate entities produced by qi; "the two are but one." In other words, from the perspective of the One Qi, Yin and Yang are merely distinctions made regarding the properties of qi; in terms of their material substance, both are qi and thus can be unified as "One Qi." This is basically consistent with Zhou Dunyi’s view that "the Great Ultimate moves and produces Yang" and "is still and produces Yin." Therefore, Zhu Xi described Zhou and Shao’s "Great Ultimate" as "speaking of it as rolled together with Yin and Yang." Shao Yong’s "spirit" is that which is "without direction and unfathomable"; Zhang Xingcheng explained this by saying: "Change (yi) is Yin and Yang. Spirit is the unfathomability of Yin and Yang." Change is the fundamental characteristic of spirit; the dual qi of Yin and Yang are the spirit itself. Clearly, this is an inheritance of the Commentary on the Appended Phrases (Xituan) of the I Ching which states: "That which is unfathomable in its Yin and Yang is called spirit."
"Qi" is the beginning and end of the transformation of all things in the universe. Shao Yong said: "The two are then spirit. Spirit produces numbers, numbers produce images, and images produce vessels [physical things]"; "the transformation of vessels returns again to spirit." Here, "spirit" is the dual qi of Yin and Yang. Shao Yong took the dual qi of Yin and Yang as the beginning and end of the transformation of all things, constructing a change-pattern of "qi → numbers → images → vessels → qi." In his view, the generation and transformation of all things arise from the dual qi of Yin and Yang, and the dissipation of all things ultimately returns to the dual qi of Yin and Yang. The basis of this change-pattern is the law possessed by the universe itself: "the numbers of the world stem from principle"; "the myriad things of the world" all have their "principle." That is, the laws contained within the dual qi of Yin and Yang are the fundamental thing. In short, the existence, development, and demise of all things are nothing more than qi aggregating and dissipating according to certain laws ("principle").
The generative evolution of all things is not—as traditional theism claims—a matter of "Heaven dwelling on high yet hearing those below," "telepathic resonance between Heaven and humanity" [10], or "rewarding the good and punishing the evil." Rather, it possesses its own set of laws (li, "principles"). Shao Yong believed that all things must follow both the generative law of "binary division" and the existential law of "four segments." "Binary division" means the generation of all things follows a logical sequence: "One divides into two, two divide into four, four divide into eight, eight divide into sixteen, sixteen divide into thirty-two, and thirty-two divide into sixty-four"; "extended thus, they become the ten thousand things." "Four segments" refers to the stage where development reaches "four," at which point things possess a basically complete structure. All things can be divided by four: for instance, natural objects include the "sun, moon, stars, and zodiacal constellations"; the seasons include "spring, summer, autumn, and winter"; and the modes of governance include "Sovereign, Emperor, King, and Hegemon" [11]. Specifically, the Taiji (Supreme Ultimate) [12] divides the primordial qi into Heaven and Earth; Heaven divides into Yin and Yang, while Earth divides into Hardness and Softness. Yin and Yang further divide into the qi of greater yang, greater yin, lesser yin, and lesser yang, which manifest as the sun, moon, stars, and constellations; their movement forms day, night, cold, and heat. Hardness and Softness divide into the qi of greater hardness, greater softness, lesser hardness, and lesser softness, which manifest as water, fire, soil, and stone, as well as wind, rain, dew, and thunder. This fourfold method can be extended to all aspects, such as nature and emotion, physical form and body, and the Classic of Changes, the Classic of Poetry, the Classic of History, and the Spring and Autumn Annals. Of course, "no single category of thing is purely one of the four without admixture." For example, animals and plants can be divided into four categories: walking creatures, flying creatures, herbs, and trees. These four can be further refined through cross-combination into sixteen categories—such as walking-walking, walking-flying, walking-herb, walking-tree, flying-walking, etc.—representing sixteen different types of biota. The social division of labor in antiquity could be divided into four classes: scholars, farmers, artisans, and merchants; further refined, these become sixteen occupations, such as scholar-scholar, scholar-farmer, scholar-artisan, and so on. In short, all things in the world, including nature and human society, generate and exist within these patterns of "binary" and "fourfold" division. In Shao Yong’s view, Heaven and Earth are the greatest of existents; every existence between them (including humans) is a "thing" (wu), thereby constructing a world of things. Although this world is infinitely varied, it is perfectly ordered. In summary, the cosmological model constructed by Shao Yong is grounded in the theory of qi. All things are objectively existing entities whose generative evolution follows the dictates of li. Whether or not this li is considered a "rational god," it constitutes a negation of the traditional anthropomorphic deity; that is to say, it speaks the language of atheism.
(2) The Atheistic Interpretation of the "Spirit of Man"
While Shao Yong’s concept of "spirit" (shen) as the Yin and Yang of the primordial qi is discussed primarily from an objective perspective, he also discusses "spirit" from a subjective perspective. The "spirit of man" possesses a triple meaning: as spirit, as intention, and as origin. Human spirit arises from refined qi (jingqi) and depends on the physical form; human intention, from the perspective of "cultivation theory" (gongfu lun), emphasizes the subject’s purging of ruminations and thoughts; the "spirit of the origin," from the perspective of "mind-nature theory" (xinxing lun), explains the generative meaning of the heart-mind (xin). It can be said that all three layers of Shao Yong's "spirit of man" possess atheistic implications.
First, the "spirit of man" is the human psyche. Shao Yong believed that "the heart-mind stores the spirit, and the kidneys store the essence"; "when a person is awake, their spirit resides in the heart-mind." The spirit of man exists within the "heart-mind"—that is, the human psyche exists within the organ of the heart. This is his absorption of the theories from the Inner Canon [13] such as "spirit and qi lodge in the heart" and "accumulating spirit in the heart," which posit that "the physical form is the lodging of the spirit." Shao Yong further pointed out: "The spirit is governed by the heart, the qi is governed by the kidneys, and the form is governed by the head. When form and qi intersect, the spirit presides within." In the relationship between form and spirit, the production of the psyche depends on the physical body. Refined qi is light and formless, corresponding to Heaven; the physical body is turbid and formed, corresponding to Earth. The psyche can only be produced and become the master of form and qi after they have intersected. Zhang Xingcheng [14] explained: "Spirit is the function of form; form is the substance of spirit." Shao Yong said: "Refined qi constitutes things; this is substance. The wandering soul constitutes transformation; this is function." Refined qi is the material basis of human life, and all bodily tissues are produced from it. The psyche is a faculty produced within the physical body through the movement of refined qi. The psyche is generated according to the sequence of "refined qi → physical form → psyche"; that is, spirit is born from form and depends upon it. Clearly, "spirit" understood as the human psyche has no supernatural meaning. Shao Yong maintained an atheistic stance regarding the relationship between form and spirit.
Second, the "spirit of man" is the heart-mind of intentions. Shao Yong believed that "the spirit of man is also my heart-mind." As the heart-mind, the "spirit of man" is essentially a discussion of the intentional heart-mind within the context of cultivation theory. Shao Yong said: "Where the Heavenly heart-mind returns is the state of no-mind; when the heart-mind reaches 'nothingness,' it cannot be found anywhere." "How can one love stillness without being afflicted? To be fond of leisure is, in the end, to have a heart-mind." Here, "no-mind" and "having a heart-mind" correspond to "intent" (yi)—that is, specific ruminations. So-called "no-mind" means the sublation of the various thoughts and ruminations generated by the heart-mind; "having a heart-mind" means that thoughts and ruminations are lodged in the heart-mind and cannot be dissolved. Shao Yong referred to the intentions he sought to sublate as "faults of the heart" or "private intentions." To this end, he emphasized the importance of "no intent" and "unmoved heart-mind," and proposed the "return to stillness" (fu jing) cultivation to achieve a state of mental tranquility. Specifically, one must first remove "profit-seeking" and "depravity" during stillness; second, one must reflect upon human affairs and the principles of things; finally, one must "clarify ruminations" (cheng silu) to achieve the sublation of intentions. "If you ask about the 'Pre-Heaven' state, there is not a single word; only in the 'Post-Heaven' state must one apply effort." This process is actually the purging of the turbid and evil aspects of thought, thereby realizing the transformation from a "moral person" to a "natural person"—that is, the return from the Post-Heaven to the Pre-Heaven state [15]. Clearly, the "spirit of man" as the intentional heart-mind emphasizes only the subjective sublation of one's own ruminations and carries no supernatural flavor.
Third, the "spirit of man" is the heart-mind of the origin. Shao Yong pointed out that the "spirit of man" can be understood as the original heart-mind of "ceaseless generation" (shengsheng); this "heart-mind" is the "root of the generation of all things." The heart-mind of the origin possesses the connotation of the "human heart-mind." In this sense, the emergence of the heart-mind is a proposition of mind-nature theory, referring to the human heart-mind’s ability to generate various intentions. When Shao Yong claimed that "the ten thousand transformations and ten thousand affairs are born in the heart-mind" and "the heart-mind is the Taiji," he was not discussing the problem of cosmic generation. Rather, he believed that "the subjective heart-mind can produce intentions; these intentions construct the subject's objects of consciousness and determine the direction of the subject's actions, thereby constructing the subject's 'life-world'." What Shao Yong emphasized was the role of the heart-mind as the "ruler" of the body in creating, constructing, and guiding intentions, objects of consciousness, and behaviors. Clearly, this heart-mind of the origin is different from both subjective idealism—the view that "the human heart-mind comes first, then the world, and the world depends on the heart-mind"—and the creationism emphasized by theism.
(3) The Negation of the Existence of Ghosts and Gods
Shao Yong’s thought possesses a rationalist character. He took qi as the foundation of the world’s production and believed that the world’s operation follows laws and principles that can be known, thereby excluding the traditional anthropomorphic deity’s dominion and control over humanity. Shao Yong viewed ghosts and gods as the natural attributes and "wondrous functions" of material qi, striving to explain them through a materialist method, and thus negated Buddhist and Taoist theology as well as secular superstitions.
First, the essence of ghosts and gods is the Yin and Yang of the two qi. Shao Yong said: "When Yang comes, there is life; when Yang departs, there is death. Since the life and death of Heaven, Earth, and the ten thousand things are presided over by Yang, they return to the One." Yang qi represents the power of generation, while Yin qi represents the power of decay. The reason all things live is that Yang qi resides within them; Yang qi is the root of the vital force of all things. Shao Yong regarded the "ultimate Yang qi" as "god" (shen) and the "ultimate Yin qi" as "ghost" (gui), while humans, situated between the two, possess both Yin and Yang qi and are the most "spiritual" (ling) of all things. Proceeding from the objective dialectical view that "what flourishes must decline, and what is born must die" and "death and life are ordinary matters," he believed that human life, like all things in Heaven and Earth, inevitably has an end if it has a beginning. When Yin and Yang aggregate, there is life; when they disperse, there is death. Therefore, when a person dies and their life ends, their physical form and spirit disperse and vanish. "Ghosts and gods" are merely the state of a person's form and qi returning to the Yin and Yang qi. Shao Yong claimed: "Although humans and ghosts are different, how could their principle (li) ever be divergent?" Both humans and ghosts are governed by the principle of Yin and Yang; under this principle, a "ghost" can only be a natural phenomenon—namely, the "returning qi." Viewing ghosts and gods as the two qi of Yin and Yang, and life and death as the aggregation and dispersion of qi, was essentially a consensus among Neo-Confucianists of this period. Zhang Zai viewed ghosts and gods as the "inherent capacity" (liang neng) of the two qi—the aggregation of qi being "god" and its wandering dispersion being "ghost." The two Cheng brothers [16] also said: "When a thing is born, qi aggregates; when it dies, it disperses and returns to nothingness." Since the soul disperses upon death and "returns to nothingness," the claim that the refined soul becomes a ghost has no basis for standing.
Second, the "circumstance and state" (qingzhuang) of ghosts and gods is the external manifestation of the "wondrous use" (miaoyong) of the two qi. Shao Yong said: "Ghosts and gods are formless yet have function; their circumstance and state can be known. One sees them through their function. The ears, eyes, nose, mouth, hands, and feet of humans, and the branches, leaves, flowers, fruits, and colors of plants are all the 'doings' of ghosts and gods. Who presides over the blessing of the good and the Bringing of calamity to the depraved? Who possesses intelligence and uprightness? Who makes things move fast without haste and arrive without walking? These are all the 'circumstance and state' of ghosts and gods." Although the two qi are themselves formless and immeasurable, their wondrous effects—the circumstance and state of ghosts and gods—can be directly measured and known by humans. The sounds, colors, scents, and tastes of things; the intelligence and uprightness of character; and the blessings or calamities of human affairs are all manifestations of the wondrous use of the two qi. Furthermore, Shao Yong said: "The 'sentiments' of Heaven and Earth refer to their circumstance and state; they are the same as the circumstance and state of ghosts and gods." The "sentiments of Heaven and Earth" are all phenomena between Heaven and Earth, all of which are visible and knowable. All phenomena in the world are identical to the circumstance and state of ghosts and gods; that is, they originate from the wondrous transformations of Yin and Yang qi.
Finally, traditional ghosts and gods do not exist. For one, Shao Yong directly negated the existence of ghosts. He said: "Some hear that in the Yin realm there are ghosts, well-able to cause a person’s death. Even if such death were caused by something, what more could one seek beyond death? Moreover, a person’s mandate depends on Heaven, not on others. Even if Yin ghosts were 'spiritual' (ling), what could they do against Heaven alone!" This forcibly negated the superstitious notion that after death one becomes a "spiritual" ghost in the underworld that can "cause a person's death," and he exhorted the people: "When the body is ill, one should seek medicine," rather than praying to ghosts and gods for safety. Furthermore, he denied the existence of immortals (xian). Shao Yong said: "People say there are 'immortals in the cave' elsewhere; I fear the 'immortals in the cave' are but false rumors." "One studies immortality wanting not to die; one studies Buddhism wanting to be reborn. Rebirth and immortality—can humans actually achieve either?" The talk of immortals was merely "false rumors" and untrustworthy. Thus, he satirized the vanity of the goals of those who "study immortality" or "study Buddhism," warning the world that if one blindly pursues non-existent gods and Buddhas, they will ultimately be "deluded by others" and "not pitied by others." Additionally, his various descriptions of "immortals"—such as "loving leisure is not for the sake of studying to be an immortal," "between glancing up and bowing down, all is joy; let others say I am like an immortal"—were essentially descriptions of his own mental state. He believed that he wandered freely between Heaven and Earth, lived leisurely in the human world, observed the creation and transformation of Heaven and Earth and the birth and death of all things, and found joy therein. This is "rejoicing in flourishing along with the ten thousand things." In this "joy," there is no opposition between the self and things; there remains only a state of "consubstantial innocence" (tongti tianzhen). Reaching this mental state is true peace and wandering freedom, "just like an immortal." Clearly, Shao Yong thereby negated the existence of transcendent immortals. In short, in Shao Yong's view, ghosts are equivalent to "refined qi"; when a person dies and the qi disperses, both physical form and spirit vanish, and thus ghosts naturally do not exist.
(4) Affirmation of the Theory of Active Living
"A common characteristic of religious, theological, and superstitious belief is the infinite exaggeration of the role of God, Buddha, ghosts, and gods, placing human destiny in their hands. It erodes people's subjective initiative with the illusory happiness of heavenly realms or Buddha-lands, teaching people to passively submit to the arrangements of fate and become faithful servants of gods and ghosts." In contrast, Shao Yong valued human worth, emphasized the exercise of subjective initiative, advocated an active and purposeful attitude toward life, and criticized "determinism" and erroneous ideas such as "leaving home to have no home" (becoming a monk).
First, he used the idea that "humans are the most spiritual" to oppose the view that life is an illusion (huanwang). Shao Yong said: "The reason humans can be more spiritual (ling) than all things is that their eyes can collect the colors of all things, their ears can collect the sounds of all things, their noses can collect the qi of all things, and their mouths can collect the tastes of all things." Humans possess perception, thought, and "spiritual clarity" (lingming); they can achieve direct knowledge of the objective world by perceiving all things. However, this knowledge is still relatively shallow: "What is called 'observing things' (guan wu) is not observing them with the eyes. It is not observing with the eyes, but with the heart-mind. It is not observing with the heart-mind, but with li (principle)." Because using sense organs like ears, eyes, nose, and mouth to know things only reveals their external forms, one cannot reach a profound understanding. When "observing things with the heart-mind," many subjective emotions are included, and the things observed carry subjective factors rather than being the things themselves. Therefore, in knowing things, one cannot rely on the senses or the [subjective] heart-mind, but must rely on reason/rationality (lixing) to proceed in an orderly, structured manner. This is "observing things through principle." At this stage, what is observed is the structure, law, and essence of the thing itself, which means the original face of the thing is faithfully presented. In Shao Yong's view, this ability to "observe things through principle" is not possessed by everyone; it can only be attained at the stage of the "Sage" (shengxian). Therefore, he advocated that people must become Sages through moral education, diligent study, and self-cultivation—that is, "returning to the root and recovering stillness," "exhausting principle and fully developing nature," and "connecting Heaven and humanity." The Sage of whom Shao Yong spoke is a level that everyone can reach through their own efforts, rather than a transcendent deity set up for the world to worship. His goal was to use the object of knowledge to establish a direction and ideal for people's efforts. This view, which takes the human world as "real" and stands firmly within it, is diametrically opposed to the religious theology of Buddhism, which regards "human life as an illusion" and focuses on the world beyond.
Second, using proactive action to negate sacrificial superstition and fatalism. Whether to be proactive [17] or passive and inactive is the fundamental opposition between atheism and theism regarding the outlook on life. Shao Yong stated: "When signs of fortune or misfortune appear, they always develop gradually; they do not stem from Heaven or Earth, but only from man." The fortunes and misfortunes of life are not bestowed or inflicted by Heaven and Earth, and as they arrive gradually, people must fully exert their initiative before such events manifest—maintaining vigilance in times of peace and remaining resolute in times of crisis. Shao’s emphasis that "fortune and misfortune depend on man" was not an invitation for people to seek protection through gods and Buddhas in advance. On the contrary, he resolutely criticized acts of supplication and prayer. When "someone told him of a ritual to dispel calamity (rǎngzāi), Shao replied: 'I have never engaged in reckless sacrifice (wàngjì).' Thus his poem says: 'If calamity could be avoided, man would have to flatter; if fortune awaited a plea, Heaven could be measured.' Another poem says: 'Inner truth inspires faith—why bother with prayer? Calamity born of a faultless life is not easily prayed away.'" Rǎngzāi refers to praying and sacrificing to eliminate disasters. Shao Yong regarded this as "reckless sacrifice"—a superstitious act identical to worshipping at heterodox shrines [18] or offering fawning prayers. He cautioned the world that there is no need to pray for the protection of spirits, noting that "if a god shows no efficacy, there is no need to pray." The experiences of fortune and misfortune in a person's life are what the secular world calls "fate." Theists believe that the fate of human life is predetermined and dominated by Heaven, Earth, ghosts, and gods. Shao Yong held a negative view of this, stating: "If it is the Mandate of Heaven [19], then I know it; if it is what the secular world calls fate, then I do not know it." What he affirmed was a Neo-Confucian [20] theory of the Mandate of Heaven stripped of theological and superstitious content. This "Mandate" (mìng) is the "Mandate" found in the phrase "exhausting principle and fully realizing one's nature to reach the Mandate"; that is, the Heavenly Principle (Tiānlǐ) endowed upon humans and things at their formation. This is a natural process consistent with objective laws.
Third, using ethical codes and social hierarchies to denounce escapism. An important manifestation of the Confucian proactive outlook on life is the use of the three fundamental bonds and five constant virtues [21], as well as moral ethics, to influence and transform society, establishing a harmonious and orderly world. In contrast, Buddhism advocates "leaving the secular family to have no family" and prohibits marriage, which creates a severe opposition with Confucian ethics. Shao Yong asked: "The Buddhists abandon the Way of ruler and minister, father and son, husband and wife—how can this be the Principle of Nature?" What Buddhism possesses is merely the study of the meditative nature of the mind; what it lacks is the principle of governing the state and bring peace to the world through loyalty, filial piety, benevolence, and righteousness. Buddhists do not observe the Way of ruler and minister, father and son, husband and wife; not only can they not govern a country, but if their ways were popularized, human society would inevitably fall into peril. This is a peak of irresponsibility toward the family, the state, and the world. Consequently, Shao Yong emphasized that "ruler and minister maintain their bond through righteousness, father and son through benevolence," and "the son is filial to the parent, the younger brother respects the elder." Everyone must exert their own agency and fulfill their assigned duties and obligations. Only with the foundation of ethical codes and moral ethics can one "prosper the nation" and "govern the world."
In summary, based on the theory of qi [22], Shao Yong constructed a material model of the universe, incorporating all existents in the world into an orderly framework. The existence and transformation of all things are the natural results of the grand circulation of the dual qi of yin and yang. Although humans are the most precious as "the soul of all things," they too are produced from qi. The human spirit originates from refined qi (jīngqì); the "mind of intention" emphasizes the sublation of one's own subjective ruminations; and the "original mind" is the source that generates various intentions. The ghosts and gods of secular belief and their various states are, in essence, the dual qi of yin and yang and their subtle, wondrous functions. Shao thus negated the existence of ghosts and gods colored by superstition, achieving a rationalistic (yǐlǐhuà) turn in the concept of spirits. Simultaneously, he emphasized the exertion of human subjective agency, advocated a proactive attitude toward life, and criticized theistic ideas such as passive inaction, fatalism, and escapism.
III. The Contributions and Significance of Shao Yong’s Atheistic Thought
Shao Yong’s atheistic thought, like that of Zhang Zai, was based on the theory of qi, using qi as a powerful weapon against religion and traditional feudal theology. This reflected the height that atheistic thought could reach under the economic, social, and technological conditions of the Northern Song Dynasty. The significance and value of Shao Yong’s atheistic thought can be briefly summarized as follows:
First, Shao Yong’s atheistic thought powerfully criticized the nihilism and creationism of religious theology, significantly advancing the development of atheism. Previous atheistic critiques of religious theology mostly used the Confucian tradition (dàotǒng) as a weapon to criticize the economic, political, and ethical harms of religion. While this could deal a blow to religious theology, it had little impact on the theological systems themselves, especially the vast theoretical system of Buddhist theology. Before the Northern Song, the "naturalism of primordial qi" (yuánqì zìrán lùn) was already struggling to contend with the highly speculative theological fortress of Buddhism. In response, Shao Yong not only criticized the social harms of religious theology but further centered his work on Confucian humanism and ethics. By absorbing the speculative spirit of Buddhism and the cosmogony of Daoism, he established a highly speculative philosophical system based on the theory of qi—encompassing cosmology, epistemology, the theory of human nature, and ethics. He negated the existence of a theological "other shore" and, with great combativeness, dealt a heavy blow to religious theology, making a major contribution to the development of ancient Chinese atheism.
Second, Shao Yong focused on applying the natural science knowledge of his time, deepening the scientific nature of his atheistic thought. By explaining the essence and dynamics of the universe, Shao proposed the view that all existents are based on qi. This view reflected the new developments in natural science within fields such as astronomy and calendar-making during the Song Dynasty. The rapid development of natural science made Shao’s atheistic thought more refined and profound. Not only did he use the theory of qi to negate a dominating supreme deity and various other forms of ghosts and gods, but he also affirmed the "spirit of man" involving spirit, intention, and the original source. Regarding the cognitive process, he emphasized a relatively scientific, progressively deepening cognitive mode of "eye—mind—principle," negating the mystical "intuitive" cognitive forms popular in Buddhism and Daoism. This atheistic thought, closely integrated with natural science, possessed greater scientific rigor and sophistication.
Finally, Shao Yong affirmed human agency and further elevated human value. Emphasizing the "innate nobility" (liángguì) of man is a basic characteristic of Confucianism. Humans can think and understand morality; they can become superior persons (jūnzǐ) or sages through self-cultivation. This value is something no one can strip away. Building on this, Shao Yong further emphasized that man is the "highest of all things" and the "soul of all things." The principles of all things are contained within the human person; through effort, humans can "exhaust the nature of things" and "investigate principle to the utmost," fully embodying the active spirit and infinite capacity of humanity in the process of understanding nature and society. Therefore, his atheistic thought highlighted human significance, trusted in human nature, affirmed human subjective ability, encouraged human development and progress, and advocated a proactive attitude toward life. These concepts were not only advanced for their time but also serve as a reference for us today in overcoming life's difficulties and pursuing human value.
Through the academic system he constructed, Shao Yong carried out a sustained and powerful critique and struggle against Buddhist and Daoist religious theology and secular superstition, making a unique contribution to the development of Chinese atheism. However, because his thought was in the initial stage of Neo-Confucianism, his understanding of "Principle" (lǐ) was not yet deep enough, and his critique of traditional theological concepts was not thorough enough. Furthermore, restricted by historical conditions and technological levels, it is undeniable that his atheistic thought contained many instances of incompleteness and limitation. For example, his cosmology, shrouded in the "science of images and numbers" (xiàngshù xué), could easily slide toward theism; his negation of traditional ghosts and gods was not complete; and the connotation of "spirit" (shén) carried overtones of pantheism or deism. Of course, these do not diminish Shao Yong’s major contribution to advancing the cause of Chinese atheism.
As one of the representative founders of Song-Ming Neo-Confucianism, Shao Yong established a cosmological model based on the theory of qi and explored the "Principle" within it. Whether in his definition of the meaning of "spirit," his critique of traditional demonology, or his elevation of human subjectivity, he reflected the driving significance Shao Yong had for the development of ancient Chinese atheistic thought. Mr. Ren Jiyu [23] pointed out that with the development of modernization and the progress of philosophy and social sciences, there is a "requirement for us to conduct deeper research into religion and more thorough critiques of theology." Therefore, today, as we vigorously promote fine traditional Chinese culture, we must, on the one hand, strive to eliminate the religious and theological elements within traditional thought and culture; on the other hand, we must conduct deep excavations of the atheistic elements within past thought and culture. This is both a necessity for contemporary research into ancient Chinese atheism and a source of richer intellectual nourishment for the higher development of Chinese thought and culture in the New Era.