Gao Guipeng: An Analysis of Atheist Thought in Wang Fuzhi's Cosmology
Cosmology is one of the fundamental domains of philosophy, primarily exploring questions such as the origin, composition, development, and transformation of the universe. Influenced by Buddhism and Taoism [1], the cosmology of Song-Ming Neo-Confucianism [2] possessed a certain mystical coloring; Neo-Confucian thinkers often regarded the cosmological ontology [3] as a mystical existence transcending the empirical world, viewing all things in the world as the function and manifestation of this ontology. During the transition between the Ming and Qing dynasties, the great scholar Wang Fuzhi systematically restructured Song-Ming Neo-Confucian cosmology. On one hand, he dissolved the divinity of the Neo-Confucian ontology; on the other, he constructed a uniquely characteristic cosmological system. His cosmology is divided into three aspects: cosmological ontology, cosmogony, and the theory of cosmological order. This article intends to examine the atheist thought contained within these three aspects.
I. Displacing the Void with the Substantial: A Cosmological Ontology of the Union of Li and Qi
The essence and supreme determinant of the universe is called the "ontology" (benthi). Song-Ming Neo-Confucians regarded Tianli (Heavenly Principle), Tiandao (the Way of Heaven), and Taiji (the Supreme Ultimate) as the ontology. These possessed characteristics such as non-materiality, abstraction, and transcendence; all could be described as illusory ontologies lacking substantive content, for which no referent could be found in the empirical world. After a profound reflection on the Neo-Confucian ontology, Wang Fuzhi established "Great Harmony" (Taihe) as the cosmological ontology. Unlike the illusory ontologies of Song-Ming Neo-Confucianism, "Great Harmony" is a dialectical integration of the empirical world.
The term "Great Harmony" first appeared in the commentary on the Qian hexagram in the Zhouyi (Book of Changes), referring to a state in which all things are harmonious and compliant. The Song scholar Zhang Zai [4] attached great importance to "Great Harmony," stating: "That which is called the Way is Great Harmony; it contains the natures of floating and sinking, rising and falling, movement and stillness, and mutual induction; these are the beginnings of the processes of surging and agitation, mutual clashing, victory and defeat, and contraction and expansion." The "Great Harmony" spoken of by Zhang Zai was used to describe the relationship between "Great Void" (Taixu) and qi [5], rather than being an ontological concept. Zhang Zai's contribution lay in extracting "Great Harmony" from the Zhouyi and turning it into an independent philosophical concept. Wang Fuzhi went a step further, endowing "Great Harmony" with ontological status. He said: "Great Harmony is the pinnacle of harmony. The Way (Dao) is the pervasive principle of Heaven, Earth, man, and things; it is what is called the Supreme Ultimate. While yin and yang have different functions, they surge within the Great Void, uniting without conflict or harm, swirling in a seamless unity—this is the pinnacle of harmony." Regarding this, the scholar Xiang Shiling believes that Wang Fuzhi used "Great Harmony" to coordinate cosmological concepts of origin since the Song dynasty, giving it the significance of a unified entity for the various concepts of origin in Song-Ming Neo-Confucianism. Consequently, "Great Harmony" is the core category and ontological concept in Wang Fuzhi's philosophy. However, it is important to note that Wang's "Great Harmony" is not merely a simple combination of Neo-Confucian ontological concepts, but a new interpretation based on a full understanding of them. He dissolved their irrational divinity and then used "Great Harmony" to organically unify these concepts, making it the sole cosmological ontology.
Regarding the specific connotation of "Great Harmony," Wang Fuzhi said: "Within Great Harmony, there is qi and there is shen (spirit/divine). Shen is nothing other than the principle (li) of the clear penetration of the two qi... The harmony of qi and shen is called Great Harmony." Here, shen refers to the "principle of the clear penetration of the two qi," meaning "the harmony of qi and shen" is "the harmony of qi and li." Wang Fuzhi's son, Wang Di, summarized his father's thought: "Li is possessed of yin and yang, and yin and yang are possessed of li; the blurring of li and qi constitutes the ontology." This ontology where li and qi are indistinguishable is "Great Harmony." Li has no concrete form; it is a collective term for the regularities of all things and spiritual phenomena. Qi has concrete form; it is a collective term for all material phenomena. Therefore, the "harmony of qi and li" indicates that "Great Harmony" is the combination of all material and spiritual phenomena—a holistic and summative expression of the cosmological world. In this sense, the ontology Wang Fuzhi speaks of is not an entity transcending the empirical world, but the natural state of the world: the state of unity between the material and spiritual worlds. That is to say, Wang Fuzhi took the empirical world as his basis and grasped the ontology through rational inference, avoiding the transcendental metaphysical tracing of ontology found in Song-Ming Neo-Confucianism, thereby preventing the "illusionization" of the ontology.
Regarding the relationship between li and qi within "Great Harmony," Wang Fuzhi believed that qi is prior to li—that matter is prior to consciousness. All things in the world are composed of material qi, and li is the regularity that things possess after they are formed. With the development of the material world, conscious activities and spiritual phenomena emerged; these are also called li. Li comes into being following the development and change of qi; whenever Wang Fuzhi discusses qi, it already contains li. Thus, Wang Fuzhi also referred to the ontology as the "qi of Great Harmony": "The qi of Great Harmony exists in yin and exists in yang." "The qi of Great Harmony is robust and compliant; its movement, stillness, and timely action are that from which li emerges." The "qi of Great Harmony" contains the two attributes of yin and yang; it is the basic material that constitutes the reality of the world and the source from which li is generated. Thus, Wang Fuzhi unified the real world into material qi, adhering to the principle of the primacy of matter.
Wang Fuzhi's understanding of qi inherited and developed the traditional Chinese "Theory of Infinite Space" (Xuanye Shuo) [6]. This was a cosmological theory asserting that "the sun, moon, and stars float naturally in the empty void; their motion and stillness all require qi." This means the celestial bodies of the universe and all things in the world are composed of qi. Compared to the "Hemispherical Dome Theory" (Gaitian Shuo) and the "Celestial Sphere Theory" (Huntian Shuo), the "Theory of Infinite Space" was more scientific. Chen Meidong pointed out: "The Xuanye theory depicted a magnificent picture of the sun, moon, and stars moving according to their own laws in an infinite space filled with qi; comparatively, it is closer to our modern understanding of the general state of the heavens and possesses great theoretical significance." Starting from this point, Wang Fuzhi opposed the theological cosmology of the Italian missionary Matteo Ricci. Ricci believed that above the spheres of the seven luminaries and the fixed stars, there was a "Primum Mobile" (Zongdong Tian), the dwelling place of the Lord (God), who dominated and governed the entire universe. Regarding this, Wang Fuzhi said: "North of the North Pole, man has no way to record. There is no image to point to and no movement to verify; those who speak of the heavens today add the name of 'Primum Mobile' above it—this is merely 'drawing a snake and adding feet' [7]." He further stated: "The body of Heaven is but a vast ring... its churning qi flows and fills everything; from the smallness of a grain of millet to the heights above the seven luminaries, to the infinity of the Primum Mobile, the unmeasurable heights above and the unmeasurable depths of the earth—all are one." Wang Fuzhi insisted that the understanding of celestial bodies cannot be divorced from the empirical observation of the ears and eyes; he considered adding a "Primum Mobile" atop the natural heavens to be a superfluous waste of effort. The cosmic world is entirely the circulation of one qi; even if there were a so-called "Primum Mobile," it would be a heaven of qi-transformation, not a dwelling for a deity. Wang Fuzhi dismissed Ricci's view—which mixed cosmological theory with theological concepts—as absurd and unfounded talk. He advocated establishing all knowledge on the basis of empirical observation, excluding all possibilities that lead toward mysticism.
From the above, we can see that Wang Fuzhi "displaced the void with the substantial." He took "Great Harmony"—which represents the reality of the world as a whole—as the cosmological ontology to replace the illusory ontologies lacking substantive content. He also treated qi as the primordial substrate of the cosmic world and the material basis for spiritual phenomena. He not only opposed the cosmological ontology of Song-Ming Neo-Confucianism but also opposed Western theological cosmology, establishing a materialist worldview.
II. Replacing Non-Being with Being: A Cosmogony of Latency and Manifestation
Wang Fuzhi believed that the process of cosmic transformation first manifests as the "qi of Great Harmony" differentiating into the two qi of yin and yang. These two qi interact and subsequently give rise to Heaven, Earth, and all things; the li (principle) inherent within the qi constitutes the laws of growth for all things. At the same time, Wang emphasized that the universe has no beginning or end; there was never a point in time when only the "qi of Great Harmony" existed without the presence of Heaven, Earth, and all things. The cosmic world is without beginning or end; "beginning" and "end" are relative only to specific individuals. He said: "The beginning of Heaven and Earth is today; the end of Heaven and Earth is today." "Heaven ends with winter and begins with spring; it ends with the hai hour and begins with the zi hour—this is only what humans say of it. In its circulating operation, Heaven itself knows no beginning or end." From the individual perspective, birth is the beginning and "Being" (you), while death is the end and "Non-Being" (wu). But from the perspective of the cosmic world as a whole, the life and death of all things are merely the coming and going of qi; there is no process of conversion from Non-Being to Being or vice versa. The beginnings and ends of the four seasons and the twelve double-hours are seen from the human horizon; for the world as a whole, it is merely a circulating operation with no such things as beginning or end. Therefore, in Wang Fuzhi's cosmological schema, the "qi of Great Harmony" and all things in the world coexist eternally. The "qi of Great Harmony" continuously generates all things, and all things continuously return to the "qi of Great Harmony," exhibiting a face of ceaseless creation and "daily renewal of abundance."
Wang Fuzhi's view of cosmic transformation inherited and developed Zhang Zai's idea that "when form clusters, it becomes a thing; when form disintegrates, it returns to the source." Zhang Zai said: "When form clusters, it becomes a thing; when form disintegrates, it returns to the source. Does 'returning to the source' refer to the transformation of the wandering soul? This so-called 'transformation' is framed against clustering and dispersing, existence and perishing; it is not like the metamorphosis of a firefly or a sparrow, which speaks of a 'previous' and 'latter' life." Here, Zhang Zai meant that the clustering of form condenses into concrete things, and the disintegration of form is not a dispersal into nothingness, but a return to the "Great Source." Zhu Xi [8] once criticized Zhang Zai's "returning to the source" theory as falling into the Buddhist theory of reincarnation. Regarding this, Wang Fuzhi pointed out that there is a fundamental difference between Zhang Zai's theory and Buddhist reincarnation. "Returning to the source" is not rebirth into another life, but rather highlights the substantive reality of the cosmic world. When a certain individual is produced, it is composed of many material elements; when the individual perishes, it does not disappear completely but is resolved back into specific material elements—meaning it still exists as something. In this sense, death is also a kind of new birth, a conversion from one thing to another; "speaking from the perspective of achieving the new, death is also the great creation of life." Wang Fuzhi’s statement approximates the law of conservation of energy in modern science. Joseph Needham pointed out: "Perhaps Wang Fuzhi's most significant contribution to the history of Chinese scientific thought was his emphasis on what is called today the principle of dynamic equilibrium." After all, Wang Fuzhi did not possess the scientific literacy of a modern person, so he expressed this situation as a return to the "qi of Great Harmony," which is equivalent to what we call basic material elements, such as quarks, protons, and neutrons. But in the context of the late Ming era, it is indeed rare and valuable that Wang Fuzhi could have such insight. Furthermore, Wang Fuzhi used this substantive view of transformation to criticize the mystical and religious cosmogonies of Buddhism and Taoism.
Taoism advocates that "all things are born from Being, and Being is born from Non-Being," believing that before the world of substantive Being, there was a "Way" (Dao) called "Non-Being." Buddhism advocates "arising and ceasing without remainder," believing that all things exist according to the union of causes and conditions (called birth/arising) and cease to exist according to their dispersal (called death/ceasing). Wang Fuzhi opposed both the Taoist theory of "Being and Non-Being" and the Buddhist theory of "arising and ceasing." On one hand, the theory of "Being and Non-Being" implies a fragmentation of the unity of the cosmic world. If one presupposes a point in time where there was only "Non-Being" without any things as the start of the universe, it falls into a paradox of infinite regression, much like what Zhuangzi described: "Suddenly there is Non-Being. But I do not know, regarding Being and Non-Being, which is really Being and which is Non-Being" (Zhuangzi, "On Equalizing Things"). On the other hand, the linear structure of the Taoist "The Way produced the One, the One produced the Two, the Two produced the Three, and the Three produced all things," as well as the Buddhist "arising and ceasing" theory—which holds that man dies without remainder and ultimately returns to nothingness—would lead to a loss of awe for life and run counter to the development of human ethical civilization. Therefore, Wang Fuzhi emphasized that "arising and ceasing is the shallow theory of the Buddhists." Consequently, he advocated using "latency and manifestation" (yin-xian) to discuss the process of cosmic transformation. "What is visible is called 'Being,' and what is invisible is then called 'Non-Being'; but in reality, while movement and stillness have their times, yin and yang are always present—Being and Non-Being are no different." Buddhism and Taoism take "visibility" as Being and "invisibility" as Non-Being; this theory of "Being and Non-Being" depends on human observation of the "clustering and dispersal of qi." In reality, whether qi is "clustered" or "dispersed," the waxing and waning of yin, yang, movement, and stillness never stop; they are all inherent realities. In this regard, the distinction between Being and Non-Being can be dissolved. What is invisible to humans is actually "latency" (yin), and what is visible is "manifestation" (xian). As basic material elements, the "qi of Great Harmony" is difficult to observe with the naked eye; for humans, it exists in "latency." When it clusters into concrete things that people can observe, it transforms into "manifestation." Whether latent or manifest, it always exists as something substantive and cannot be called "Non-Being."
In Chinese history, there also existed the theory of "Interaction Between Heaven and Mankind" (Tianren Ganying), which held that Heaven possessed a will, and even ears, eyes, and sensory organs; Heaven was not only the creator of man and all things but also reacted to human behavior, rewarding good and punishing evil. Such a "Heaven" was, in fact, a kind of anthropomorphic god. To this, Wang Fuzhi offered a critique: "If one thinks Heaven can make the earth stay in place, make the sun and moon move, make the wind and clouds gather and breathe, then Heaven must have ears and eyes to observe, hands and feet to move things, and a mind to command. Only if such causes existed could one seek them out to encourage oneself and emulate them as virtue." That is to say, the emergence of man and natural things is the result of the clustering and transformation of material qi, not a manifestation of divine will. The clustering of qi is life and its dispersal is death; death is not a return to nothingness but a transformation into another material form of existence. Therefore, life and death are both natural matters, not governed or ruled by divine beings.
From the above, we can see that Wang Fuzhi believed the generation and evolution of all things in the world are achieved through the latent and manifest changes of qi. The movement of qi from latency to manifestation is the production of a thing; from manifestation to latency, it is the death of a thing. Whether latent or manifest, qi—as the basic material element—always exists, thereby establishing cosmic transformation on a substantive basis.
III. Stillness within Motion: A Theory of Continual Cosmological Evolution
Wang Fuzhi argues that qi is perennially in a state of flow and transformation; therefore, motion is absolute, while stillness is relative. "When motion exists within stillness, then stillness can be named motion." Stillness occurs when the position of one object relative to another reference point does not change, yet no object exists in a state of absolute stasis; thus, he claims that stillness is contained within motion. Due to the eternal motion of qi, the cosmos unfolds as a process of continuous change through time. Wang proposed the perspective that "the transformation of heaven and earth is daily renewed" [9], positing that all things displace the old to bring forth the new. He stated: "The transformation of heaven and earth is daily renewed. Today's wind and thunder are not yesterday's wind and thunder; thereby we know today's sun and moon are not yesterday's sun and moon." Furthermore: "The water of the rivers is the same today as in antiquity, yet today's water is not the water of antiquity. The flame of a lamp yesterday is like that of today, yet yesterday's flame is not today's flame." Although in form today’s wind and thunder appear like yesterday's, and today's sun and moon appear like yesterday's, the physical changes within things occur every moment. Therefore, in terms of content, one cannot say today’s phenomena are identical to yesterday's; the same logic applies to river water and candlelight. Based on the view of "daily renewal," Wang Fuzhi believed the cosmos changes rapidly without pause, and that these changes manifest a general order of development and progress.
From a holistic perspective, all life in the cosmos is in a state of constant evolution. Taking humanity as an example, Wang said: "Before the time of Xuanyuan [10], were people not like the Yidi [11]? Before Taihao [12], were they not like birds and beasts? ... They were merely beasts that stood upright." He continued: "Before the eras of Tang and Yu [13], there are no detailed records to examine; however, clothing was not yet standardized, the five social relations [14] were not yet clear, marriage was not yet distinguished, and funeral rites were not yet cultivated. In a state of wild confusion, man differed little from the birds and beasts." In high antiquity, there was no essential difference between the lifestyles of humans and animals: there was no fire for cooking, no clothing to cover the body, and no human civilization or ethics to speak of. They lived in a state of ignorance, which Wang termed "beasts that stand upright." With the passage of time, humanity gradually transcended the animal state, and the degree of civilization continuously improved—from "drinking blood and eating fur" to men farming and women weaving, from tribal settlements to the establishment of feudal states, and from ignorance of rites and righteousness to the creation of rituals and music. The development and evolution of humanity presented a process of the unity of logic and history, an evolutionary process that continues to this day. Not only humanity, but all things in the world are constantly evolving. "The Han and Tang dynasties did not possess the Way (dao) of today, just as today lacks much of the Way of future years." The cosmos is always displacing the old to bring forth the new; what exists today did not necessarily exist in the past, and what will exist in the future does not necessarily exist today. In the torrent of time, the only constant is that everything changes. Wang said: "The changes of the sun, moon, wind, and clouds have no fixed routine, yet they have remained so since the beginning of time—this is the ultimate constancy." The changes of the world are inherently impermanent (wuchang), but that they are perpetually so constitutes the "Constant Way."
Song-Ming Neo-Confucianism harbored an archaizing view, believing the Three Dynasties (Xia, Shang, and Zhou) represented the peak of civilization and that every subsequent generation was inferior, thus raising the slogan "return to the Three Dynasties." Zhang Zai claimed that "governance must be modeled after the Three Dynasties," the Cheng brothers believed that "those who do not govern according to the Three Dynasties follow a makeshift path," and Zhu Xi argued that the hearts of the Three Dynasties' rulers were clear in their transmission of "Heavenly Principle," whereas later rulers were preoccupied with profit and desire. This archaizing concept, which asserts the present is inferior to the past and that social mores decline daily, denies the continuous development of human society. To this, Wang Fuzhi countered that humans evolved from animals and that human society is in a process of constant evolution. He viewed the archaizing concept—which regards antiquity as advanced and later ages as regressive—as absurd. He vigorously criticized the archaism of previous Confucians, arguing that "to pride oneself on returning to the old—how stifling!" Returning to antiquity is neither possible nor desirable.
From an individual perspective, the nature (xing) of every person is also in a process of constant evolution. Regarding this, Wang Fuzhi believed that human nature includes both sensory and rational capacities; it is a synthesis of various spiritual qualities. "Thus, the principles of benevolence, righteousness, ritual, and wisdom cannot be extinguished even in the most foolish; and the desires for sound, color, smell, and taste cannot be discarded even by those of superior wisdom. Both may be called 'nature'." Both value-rationality and sensory desires fall within the scope of human nature. Wang further argued that "nature is the principle of life; it is formed daily as one lives daily." Human nature is not in a perfect state at birth but is always in the process of becoming and developing. On one hand, sensory capacities strengthen as the body grows. "At the beginning of life, a person has no power (quan) and cannot take or use things for themselves... After birth, once a person has power, they can take and use things for themselves." That is to say, at birth, the body's functions cannot support the senses in interacting with the external world; only with physical growth do they possess sufficient function to utilize external essence. On the other hand, the capacity for logical thinking and moral judgment improves progressively through postnatal cultivation and social education. "The form is nourished daily, the qi is replenished daily, and the principle (li) is perfected daily." In other words, one must continuously improve oneself through various means, strengthening rational thinking and cultivating social virtues to become a civilized person of wisdom and morality, rather than merely relying on "heavenly endowment."
Song-Ming Neo-Confucianism held that human nature is an innate moral goodness—the essence that determines what makes a human—which exists at birth rather than being formed postnatally. For example, Zhu Xi said: "Nature is the Heavenly Principle (tianli) received by man." In Neo-Confucianism, human nature is the manifestation of Heavenly Principle in the individual, the realization of the ontological Substance in the person, possessing a transcendent quality. This was a theoretical hypothesis lacking empirical evidence. Western theology holds that man was created by God and that human nature was endowed by God. Matteo Ricci said: "When the Lord of Heaven (Tianzhu) created things, He began with the various ancestors of all species. Once the ancestors existed, the species reproduced themselves. Now, as things produce things, as humans produce humans, if their utility comes from heaven, then is the one who produces humans not the Lord of Heaven? For example, although a saw or a chisel can make an implement, they are both used by the craftsman; who would say the implement was made by the saw or chisel and not the craftsman?" That is, Ricci believed the Lord of Heaven created humans and all things, giving each its origin; thus, human wisdom also comes from God and should be applied through faith and the practice of God's word. Wang Fuzhi, conversely, believed that human sensibility and rationality are continuously perfected postnatally, and there is no such thing as an a priori, unchanging moral essence or wisdom. Through natural evolution, humanity emerged from all things to become the "spirit of all creatures," and through individual growth and social habituation, became civilized people with reason and conscience.
Some scholars have pointed out that Wang Fuzhi’s evolutionary thought is a "brilliant insight that closely approaches the conclusions of modern science," reaching the peak of the intellectual level of his era and serving as a powerful rebuttal to both traditional Chinese mysticism and Western religious obscurantism. Certainly, due to the limitations of his time, Wang’s evolutionary thought remained in a "naïve" state—somewhat coarse and eclectic, neglecting the important role of labor in the process of human evolution. However, Wang’s spirit of "disenchantment" and his foresight in articulating what predecessors had not are worthy of affirmation.
IV. Conclusion Wang Fuzhi regarded "Great Harmony" (Taihe) as the cosmic substance, the unity of the real world. Qi is the substrate constituting the real world; the birth of all things is the manifestation of qi moving from the hidden to the manifest, while the death of all things is the manifestation of qi returning from the manifest to the hidden. Throughout this process, qi always exists in some form, and there is no "void substance" that transcends actual existence. Qi is characterized by eternal motion; motion is absolute and stillness is relative. The real world is "daily renewed" in its changes, manifesting as a general order of continuous evolution. In short, Wang Fuzhi’s cosmology depicts a picture of a cosmos where the transformation of qi generates life endlessly and is filled with vitality. He established the origin and development of the world on a materialist basis, eliminating mystical elements from Confucianism by "clearing the source" (zhengben qingyuan). Wang Fuzhi’s atheist thought liberated people from the shackles of theology, focusing instead on the empirical world and real life, affirming the position and value of humanity in the world. This carried a significance of intellectual enlightenment, leading the trends of the Ming-Qing transition and promoting the development of Chinese atheist thought. Marxist scholars such as Hou Wailu, Zhang Dainian, and Xiao Jiefu have interpreted Wang Fuzhi’s cosmological thought from the perspective of materialism, promoting the modern transformation of Wang’s thought and opening a new chapter in the development of Chinese atheism. Thus, it can be said that Wang Fuzhi’s atheist thought has exerted a broad and far-reaching influence.