Li Yong and Peng Qinghai: The Historical Logic, Theoretical Connotations, and Contemporary Enlightenments of Ya Hanzhang's Thoughts on Atheist Propaganda and Education
Atheist publicity and education is a fundamental task of Marxism in the realm of ideology. As early as the period of the New Democratic Revolution [1], the Communist Party of China (CPC) attached great importance to breaking down superstition and liberating the minds of the masses by propagating materialism and atheism. Since the founding of the People’s Republic of China, the Party has continuously explored methodologies and paths for atheist education through the practice of religious policy and theoretical research. In this process, a group of important theoretical workers emerged, among whom Ya Hanzhang is an outstanding representative. Ya Hanzhang (1916–1989) was a major advocate for the theory of atheist publicity and education in China. At the same time, his erudition spanned the fields of ethnic studies, religious studies, and Tibetology; his profound interdisciplinary research achievements provided a solid foundation for his thoughts on atheist publicity and education.
In recent years, scholarship concerning Ya Hanzhang's ethnic theory and Tibetology has gradually emerged. In particular, the centenary of Ya Hanzhang's birth in 2016 served as a focal point for the publication of several documentary biographies, theoretical anthologies, and academic papers, including the Biography of Ya Hanzhang, the first work to systematically present his life and academic contributions. Through a systematic review of Ya’s academic thought, scholars such as Zhang Sannan and Li Jiaxuan have pointed out that he performed foundational work regarding the "Hui ethnic identity question" and the debate over the concept of "ethnicity/nationality" (minzu), the construction of theories on ethnic formation, and the theoretical interpretation of socialist ethnic relations. Ya Hanzhang raised the issue of the boundary between religion and superstition, enriched the theoretical explanation of the policy of freedom of religious belief, and for the first time systematically proposed a research framework for the "History of Chinese Atheism." Awang Jiacuo and Wang Zhihao, by reviewing Ya’s ethnic work practices during the period of the peaceful liberation of Tibet [2], revealed his outstanding contributions to promoting ethnic unity in Tibet, maintaining national unity, and advancing the Sinicization of ethnic theory. Xu Sheng argues that through his scientific interpretation of religious policy and practical promotion of atheist education, Ya Hanzhang effectively raised the level of ideological consciousness among the Chinese populace, providing strong theoretical support for the implementation of atheist education and religious policies. However, to date, the academic community lacks a systematic review of Ya Hanzhang's thoughts on atheist publicity and education, and his theoretical contributions have not been fully unearthed. In view of this, this article intends to conduct a comprehensive investigation of Ya Hanzhang's thoughts on atheist publicity and education, collating its core content and ideological characteristics, and deeply analyzing the academic value and practical significance contained therein.
I. The Historical Background and Process of the Formation of Ya Hanzhang's Thoughts on Atheist Publicity and Education
(1) From "Temple" to Yan'an: Early Life and Enlightenment in Marxism
Ya Hanzhang was born into an ordinary family in Ninghebao, Hezhou, Gansu (now Hezheng County, Gansu Province), and was immersed in a multi-ethnic and multi-religious culture from his youth. After the Hehuang Incident of 1928, following his father's orders, he entered the Labrang Monastery—a sacred site of Tibetan Buddhism—to become a monk, spending nearly three years living as an "Aka" [3]. This unique experience allowed Ya Hanzhang to have deep contact with monastic religious education from a young age, personally experiencing Buddhist sutras and traditional ethnic culture. In 1931, he returned to the Gansu Provincial Fifth Middle School to complete his secondary education. In 1937, at the age of 21, Ya Hanzhang traveled to Drepung Monastery in Lhasa, Tibet, as a secretary and translator for the 5th Jamyang Zhepa [4] to study sutras. In this holy land of religion, he concentrated on studying Tibetan classics and investigating Tibetan society and culture. However, with the full-scale outbreak of the War of Resistance Against Japanese Aggression, the Chinese nation reached a moment of crisis. Harboring patriotic fervor, Ya Hanzhang resolutely bid farewell to the Jamyang Living Buddha and made his way to Yan'an to join the movement for national salvation against Japan. Upon arriving in Yan'an, he entered the Northern Shaanxi Public School (Shanbei Gongxue) to receive enlightenment and education in Marxist thought. At that time, in the Shaanxi-Gansu-Ningxia Border Region [5], schools at all levels arranged many courses to propagate materialism and scientific knowledge. Compulsory courses such as Dialectical Materialism and the Materialist Conception of History were lectured by Party leaders themselves. Here, Ya Hanzhang began to receive a complete education in Marxist theory.
(2) The Establishment of a Marxist Theoretical Standpoint and Revolutionary Practice
The theoretical immersion during the Yan'an period enabled Ya Hanzhang to gradually establish a firm Marxist standpoint and a materialist worldview. In October 1938, Ya Hanzhang officially joined the Communist Party of China at the main campus of the Northern Shaanxi Public School. After graduating, he entered the Ethnic Affairs Committee of the Northwest Working Committee of the CPC Central Committee to engage in research on ethnic issues, beginning to examine ethnic and religious problems from a Marxist standpoint. He participated in compiling the book The Hui Ethnic Question, taking responsibility for the section on the origins and history of the Hui people. Published in Yan'an in 1941, the book clearly pointed out that the "Hui" are members of the great family of the Chinese nation. Through this practice, Ya Hanzhang initially applied Marxist theory to ethnic and religious work within the United Front [6], laying the foundation for the future development of his thoughts on atheist publicity and education.
Subsequently, he was tempered in various posts, continuously putting theory into practice. During the late period of the War of Resistance Against Japanese Aggression, he worked in the Ethnic Minorities Research Office of the Fourth Branch of the Investigation and Research Bureau of the CPC Central Committee, participating in the formulation of ethnic policies for the base areas and collaborating with veteran revolutionaries such as Ulanhu to conduct investigations on ethnic issues. After the victory of the War of Resistance, Ya Hanzhang was ordered to the "secret front." In 1946, he was transferred to Gansu to carry out underground work, an experience about which he later wrote the memoir Underground Struggle in Longyou. In the early days of the New China, he served successively as the Director of the Ethnic Affairs Commission of the Linxia Administrative Office and Deputy Director of the United Front Work Department of the Gansu Provincial CPC Committee, dedicating himself to the unity and revolutionary mobilization of the masses of all ethnic groups. In 1951, utilizing his deep understanding of Tibetan Buddhism and Tibetan affairs, Ya Hanzhang was responsible for escorting the Panchen Erdeni [7] back to Tibet, making a special contribution to the Central Government's peaceful liberation of Tibet and the consolidation of national unity. During his work in Tibet, he was appointed as a member, Secretary-General, and Director of the Policy Research Office of the Tibet Work Committee—the resident organ of the Central People’s Government in Tibet. He played an important role in the social reform of Tibet and the implementation of ethnic and religious policies. During this period, he completed the first draft of the Biography of the Dalai Lama and collected extensive materials for works such as the Biography of the Panchen Erdeni and A New Chapter in the History of Tibet, which were published successively later.
Through revolutionary practice, Ya Hanzhang deepened his understanding of Marxist ethnic theory and the atheist standpoint, providing theoretical support for the Party's policies in the ethnic and religious fields. In 1958, he moved into a leadership position in the social sciences, transferring to Beijing to serve as Deputy Director of the Institute of Ethnic Studies of the Department of Philosophy and Social Sciences of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (now CASS), concurrently serving as the editor-in-chief of Ethno-National Studies (Minzu Yanjiu). During this period, he participated in the academic debates of the early New China regarding the concept of "ethnicity/nationality" and the question of ethnic formation, offering insightful views from a Marxist perspective and contributing to the refinement of the New China’s system of ethnic theory. Having been tempered and tested through the New Democratic Revolution, Ya Hanzhang’s Marxist theoretical standpoint became increasingly firm, laying a solid foundation for his subsequent focus on atheist publicity and education.
(3) Atheist Research After the Founding of New China
After the founding of New China, Ya Hanzhang firmly applied Marxist theory to the study of atheist publicity and education, becoming a pioneer and authoritative scholar in this field. From the late 1950s onward, he published several important papers focusing on atheism and religious issues, systematically explaining the necessity and methodology of atheist education. Between 1959 and 1964, these research results were collected and published as the book Atheism and Religious Issues. This work of approximately 91,000 characters was the first monograph by a scholar in New China to use Marxist theory to study atheism and religion, laying a solid foundation for the establishment of the disciplines of religious studies and atheism in our country.
Ya Hanzhang pointed out: "Propagating atheism to the broad masses of people and conducting atheist education is the only correct method for the Communist Party to lead the people in the struggle against religious superstition." In order to establish a scientific and rational worldview throughout society, Ya Hanzhang repeatedly emphasized that atheist publicity and education is a long-term and important task, playing an irreplaceable role in breaking down ignorance and liberating the mind. However, he also keenly recognized the deficiencies and inadequacies in the construction of the discipline of atheism in China’s academic circles at that time: "Not only has a history of Chinese atheism not been written, but even a compilation of historical materials on Chinese atheist thought has not been produced."
In response to this weak link, after the Cultural Revolution, Ya Hanzhang began dedicating himself to pioneering research on the history of Chinese atheist thought. During this period, he published a series of papers such as "A Preliminary Exploration of the History of Chinese Atheism" and "The Relationship Between Confucian Doctrine and Chinese Atheist Thought—A Sequel to 'A Preliminary Exploration of the History of Chinese Atheism'," reawakening the academic community's attention to the study of the history of atheism. Subsequently, Ya Hanzhang spared no effort in the compilation of the History of Chinese Atheism. This project was listed as a key scientific research project during the "Sixth Five-Year Plan" and "Seventh Five-Year Plan" periods [8], with him leading a task force to tackle the subject. After years of arduous effort, he led the completion of the History of Chinese Atheism, running to over one million characters. It systematically collated the developmental trajectory of Chinese atheist thought over more than two thousand years, from the Pre-Qin period to the May Fourth Movement, and stands as a landmark achievement in applying Marxist principles to the study of atheism.
Through the positive interaction between theoretical research and publicity practice, Ya Hanzhang made outstanding contributions to the cause of atheist education in New China. He both filled the academic void in the study of Chinese atheist history and fostered a scientific and rational view of belief among the public. Through his lifelong efforts, the thought of atheist publicity and education was disseminated and developed in China, playing an important role in improving the scientific literacy of the whole people and consolidating socialist ideology.
II. The Main Content of Ya Hanzhang's Thoughts on Atheist Publicity and Education
The content of Ya Hanzhang's thoughts on atheist publicity and education is rich, manifesting both in deep research into atheist theory and history and in the elucidation of practical principles for publicity and education. The academic community has summarized his main contributions to religious studies and atheist research as follows: the scientific interpretation of Marxist atheist theory and the policy of freedom of religious belief; the analysis of the relationship between religion and superstition; and the compilation of the History of Chinese Atheism.
To better understand the connotation of Ya Hanzhang’s thoughts, it is necessary to first clarify the meaning of "atheist publicity and education." According to the Atheist Dictionary compiled in the Soviet Union, atheist education refers to the "influence given to people in order to establish a scientific materialist worldview and overcome religious belief," while atheist publicity, as an indispensable part of it, aims to "explain the falsehood of religious belief and demonstrate the scientific materialist worldview in the process of influencing the thoughts of individuals and groups." Chinese scholars (including Ya Hanzhang) define atheist education in terms of content: using historical materialism to analyze the roots of the emergence of theistic ideas and the laws of the birth, development, and demise of religion, so that the broad masses can correctly understand the essence of theism and religion, thereby liberating people from the shackles of theism and religion. Guided by this theory, Ya Hanzhang gradually formed a systematic body of thought on atheist publicity and education. In summary, his thoughts consist of the following aspects:
(1) Adhering to the Theoretical Guidance of Marxist Atheism
Ya Hanzhang always insisted on using Marxist atheism as the theoretical guide for atheist publicity and education. He believed that Marxist atheism is the most thorough and scientific form of atheism in human history, and that religious phenomena must be analyzed and atheist publicity conducted based on dialectical materialism and historical materialism. In Ya’s view, the fundamental purpose of atheist publicity and education is to improve the scientific worldview and political consciousness of the masses, encouraging them to consciously break free from religious constraints. To achieve this goal, it is necessary to conduct a comprehensive and in-depth analysis of religious phenomena based on Marxist theory, including revealing that the origin of religion is rooted in nature and social oppression, and the close connection between religion and class relations, thereby clarifying people's understanding of the essence and role of religion.
First, regarding the question of the origin and development of theism and religion, Ya Hanzhang believed that...
"The emergence and development of theism can generally be divided into three stages: the earliest to arise was the concept of the soul, which represents the lower stage of theism; the concept of gods is the intermediate stage; and the concept of God (as a singular supreme being) is the advanced stage." Within this framework, the concept of the soul refers to the "spiritual self" discovered by people in dreams as distinct from the physical self. The concept of gods only appeared after the emergence of clan and tribal organizations—that is, the "souls" of heroic figures worshiped within the tribe were gradually elevated to "human-gods." In this process, the concept of the soul gradually extended from humans themselves to all things in nature, leading to the appearance of nature gods. The concept of God, however, was a "supreme soul ruling the entire universe" created by humans in imitation of the "supreme ruler" after entering class society. In terms of religious classification, he distinguishes between the "spontaneous religion" of primitive society and the "artificial religion" of class society. Ya Hanzhang explained Marx’s citation of Lewis Henry Morgan's Ancient Society regarding primitive religion: under the domination of "natural forces" and "social forces," sacrificial activities in primitive society gradually formed specific idols for worship, fixed sacrificial rituals, and specialized personnel to preside over them; these constitute the three conditions for the formation of "spontaneous religion." "Artificial religion" is built upon the foundation of spontaneous religion but with distinct worshipped deities, doctrines, religious activities, and specialized religious professionals—examples include Christianity and Buddhism. By analyzing the roots and development of theism and religion, Ya Hanzhang deconstructed the mystery of religious origins through the lens of historical materialism.
Second, regarding the theory of the essence of religion, Ya Hanzhang continued the Marxist critical inheritance of Feuerbach’s [9] theory. In his article "Feuerbach’s The Essence of Christianity," Ya Hanzhang explained how the Marxist view of religion critically inherited Feuerbach’s thought. For instance, Engels’ discussion of religion in Anti-Dühring—that "all religion is nothing but the fantastic reflection in men’s minds of those external forces which control their daily life"—inherited Feuerbach’s assertion that "it is not God who created man, but man who created God; man created God in his own image." Simultaneously, Ya Hanzhang pointed out the Marxist critique of the abstraction and detachment from social reality found in Feuerbach’s humanistic view of religion. He argued that the "real world" Feuerbach spoke of was abstract and lacked concrete content, whereas religion is not merely a reflection of an abstract "man" in general, but a reflection of the man of social relations and the man of society. Consequently, religion returns to the human world in a trans-human form and dominates humanity. Ya Hanzhang believed that from an atheistic perspective, by understanding God as a being created by man in his own image, the essence of God is reduced to the essence of man. Once man becomes "primary," the existence of God is negated; this is a distinctively atheistic viewpoint.
Third, on the question of the withering away of religion, Ya Hanzhang, as a Marxist, both remained firm in the ultimate judgment that religion would vanish and pointed out, based on the current level of development in China's socialist society, that "socialist society is not the period of religion’s disappearance." Ya Hanzhang believed that the withering away of religion is predicated on the foundation that "after communism triumphs worldwide, with the elimination of classes and class struggle, the immense development of productive forces and science and technology, and the unprecedented leap in people's political consciousness and scientific-cultural levels... all humanity will gradually grasp the laws of natural and social development... and fully escape the state of enslavement before natural and social forces." Only when the social roots and class foundations upon which religion survives disappear will religion gradually wither away. Looking at the developmental stage of China's socialist society, the greatest fundamental national condition at present is that it is still in, and will long remain in, the primary stage of socialism. Ya Hanzhang argued that at this stage, the level of productive forces is not yet sufficiently developed, and people are still dominated by natural forces—particularly the recurring onslaught of natural disasters. Meanwhile, the domination of people by social forces persists, and the class basis upon which religion depends remains. Any attempt to "eliminate" religion prematurely or artificially is bound to fail. This crucial judgment determined that the core of religious work in socialist China is definitely not the elimination of religion. In particular, the painful lessons of the "Cultural Revolution" [10]—during which temples were smashed and atheism education was replaced by political movements—revealed that atheism propaganda and education must and can only be carried out in the form of ideological education. Ya Hanzhang’s scientific grasp of the laws of religious development and his profound insight into the process of social-historical development provided an important theoretical basis for correctly recognizing and understanding religious phenomena.
Fourth, regarding the attitude of the proletariat and the proletarian party toward religion—or rather, the Party’s religious policy—Ya Hanzhang penned our Party’s first authoritative theoretical article comprehensively explaining the policy of freedom of religious belief: "On Freedom of Religious Belief." In this text, Ya Hanzhang argued: "Freedom of religious belief is the basic policy of our Party and state toward religious issues, and it is a long-term policy." China’s Constitution stipulates: "Citizens of the People’s Republic of China enjoy freedom of religious belief. No state organ, public organization, or individual may compel citizens to believe in, or not to believe in, any religion; nor may they discriminate against citizens who believe in, or do not believe in, any religion. The state protects normal religious activities." Ya Hanzhang believed that implementing the policy of freedom of religious belief was based, on one hand, on the fact that religion is a worldview and cognitive outlook formed by the broad masses over a long period. Before the birth of Marxism, because people could not understand the laws governing the universe and human development, religion provided direct answers to their confusion and offered spiritual solace—even "happiness in the afterlife"—for the hardships of life; thus, Marx called religion the "opium of the people." On the other hand, the policy is conducive to uniting the broadest possible masses of the people, bringing both religious and non-religious people around the Party to "jointly carry out the democratic revolution and socialist revolution, jointly consolidate the dictatorship of the proletariat, and jointly build socialism and communism." As long as they accept the Party’s leadership and abide by national laws and regulations, they should be permitted to maintain their original religious beliefs. Furthermore, when this article was first published in 1959, it not only forcefully refuted the slanders of external hostile forces claiming that China’s religious democratic reforms and the reform of the serfdom system in Tibet [11] were "eliminating religion," but also answered the confusion of many Party cadres and the masses as to why the Communist Party and the socialist system of New China—guided by Marxist theory—would allow citizens to believe in religion.
Correspondingly, Ya Hanzhang conducted an in-depth analysis of the long-standing phenomenon of feudal superstition in Chinese society. He argued that the prevalence of superstition was due, on one hand, to a lack of scientific knowledge and an inability to explain various strange phenomena, and on the other hand, to the promotion and utilization of superstition by reactionary ruling classes throughout history in combination with fatalistic thought. Based on this understanding, Ya Hanzhang emphasized that a strict distinction must be made between religion and feudal superstition: for formal religious activities, freedom should be guaranteed by law and the unity of religious masses should be upheld; for feudal superstitious activities that harm people or defraud them of money, the state should strike out against and ban them. This distinction helps prevent "prescribing the wrong medicine" in the struggle against superstition, avoiding the simplistic and crude prohibition of normal religious beliefs as if they were superstition, thereby ensuring the correct implementation of religious policy. This theoretical distinction reflects his adherence to the Marxist standpoint and the principle of seeking truth from facts in analyzing problems.
(2) Emphasis on the Organization and Study of Domestic and Foreign Atheistic Heritage
Promoting the theoretical study of atheism and organizing the heritage of atheistic thought is a key component of Ya Hanzhang’s thought on atheism propaganda and education. He advocated for the full utilization of the valuable atheistic heritage left by human history to serve atheistic propaganda and education. Specifically, this includes the following:
First, in the organization and study of foreign atheistic thought, Ya Hanzhang followed the views of Engels and Lenin, advocating for the translation and publication of the works of 18th-century French "militant atheists." He argued these should be analyzed and critiqued from a Marxist perspective to "absorb the essence and discard the dross," making them better serves as vivid and powerful propaganda materials for the masses. He listed the introduction and translation in China of representative works by Enlightenment thinkers such as Jean Meslier, La Mettrie, Helvétius, Diderot, and d'Holbach, emphasizing that these world-renowned works played a positive role in awakening the populace to break through religious dreams. At the same time, Ya Hanzhang pointed out that these 18th-century atheistic works contained certain limitations and "unscientific, naive" elements, advocating for their adaptation through abridgment, annotation, and critical inheritance to align them with the scientific spirit of Marxism.
Regarding ancient atheism, Ya Hanzhang believed that ancient Greek atheism, represented by Epicureanism, naively negated the existence of ghosts and gods. Although they failed to explain the reasons why the concept of ghosts and gods appeared, they embodied progressiveness in an era of universal belief in such entities.
In his article "Spinoza’s Tractatus Theologico-Politicus," Ya Hanzhang pointed out that under the constraints of Christianity’s thousand-year dominance over the Western world and the threat of death from the Inquisition, Spinoza bravely stated that there is no supernatural thing existence other than the entity of nature itself. To Spinoza, God is Nature and Nature is God. Although Spinoza affirmed the existence of "God," his ability to negate supernatural existence (including the traditional God) under the historical conditions of the time constituted a "weak atheism" with certain compromises that reignited the flame of atheism in Western society. Ya Hanzhang believed that the "old atheists" of the 18th century, represented by the French Encyclopedists, inherited the path reopened by Spinoza. They took a standpoint that "straightforwardly and completely negated the existence of souls, ghosts, gods, and God," and pointed out that all theistic concepts and religious superstitions were "lies fabricated by 'swindlers' to anesthetize the minds of the people." Ya Hanzhang referred to this group of 18th-century old atheists as "great warriors of the outstanding democratic revolution" to highlight their revolutionary achievements in opposing feudal autocracy through the struggle against religion.
Second, Ya Hanzhang placed even greater emphasis on excavating and utilizing China’s own rich heritage of indigenous atheistic thought. He believed that "China is a country with a rich historical heritage of atheism," and that "Chinese atheism is an integral part of world atheism; the history of Chinese atheism is, of course, a part of the history of world atheism." He detailed important atheistic thoughts and texts from various historical periods since the pre-Qin era, such as Gong Mengzi’s [12] theory of "no ghosts or gods" during the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods; Xunzi’s [13] "On Heaven" (Tianlun) and "Dispelling Obsession" (Jiebi); the chapters "On Death" (Lunsi) and "Revising Ghosts" (Dinggui) in Wang Chong’s [14] Lunheng (Balanced Discourses) during the Eastern Han; Fan Zhen’s [15] "On the Extinction of the Soul" (Shenmie Lun) during the Southern and Northern Dynasties; Liu Zongyuan’s and Liu Yuxi’s [16] "Theory of Heaven" (Tianshou) and "On Heaven" (Tianlun) during the Tang Dynasty; and Xiong Bolong’s [17] Wuhe Ji (Collected Works of Nowhere) during the Qing Dynasty. He argued that these immortal works constitute an extremely precious atheistic heritage for the Chinese nation.
Third, Ya Hanzhang was the first to emphasize "the full utilization of China's own precious historical heritage of atheism" to carry out atheism education. He broke away from the previous content limitations of "taking the West as the foundation" in atheism research and propaganda, pioneering a new "Sinicized" and indigenous orientation for atheism studies in China. Ya Hanzhang advocated for the systematic collection and organization of atheistic historical materials scattered throughout the classics and histories, and for the compilation of a History of Chinese Atheism based on this research, to serve as a textbook for atheism propaganda directed at the masses. He asserted that the Chinese atheistic heritage organized in this way would be no less effective in its propaganda impact than 18th-century Western atheistic works. This proposal was later implemented in practice. In articles such as "A Preliminary Exploration of the History of Chinese Atheism," Ya Hanzhang holistically outlined the history of Chinese atheism from dimensions such as periodization, research subjects (representative figures), and the characteristics of Chinese atheistic theories, proposing basic standards for the study of Chinese atheistic history. Regarding the periodization of Chinese atheistic history, he divided it into the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods, the Han dynasties, the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties, the Tang, Song, Yuan, Ming, and Qing dynasties, and the period from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement [18]...
periods into five stages. Regarding the research objects (representative figures) in the history of Chinese atheism, Ya Hanzhang pioneered the proposition that "Confucius was also a great atheist of ancient China; Chinese atheistic thought, in fact, developed as an inheritance of Confucius’s atheistic theory." Furthermore, Ya Hanzhang argued that when selecting figures for the history of Chinese atheism, one should judge whether they possessed atheistic thought based on the historical conditions of their time. Regarding the characteristics of Chinese atheistic theories, Ya Hanzhang believed one should grasp three pairs of struggling relationships: the struggle between "no ghosts" and "possessing ghosts" [19]; the struggle regarding the relationship between "Heaven and man" [20]; and the struggle against various secular superstitions. In his later years, Ya Hanzhang remained personally responsible for the compilation and revision of The History of Chinese Atheism, pouring his heart and soul into this research and making outstanding contributions. Under his leadership and in cooperation with colleagues, the two-volume History of Chinese Atheism and the multi-volume Selected Materials on the History of Chinese Atheism were published successively.
From this, it is evident that being adept at inheriting the legacy of domestic and foreign atheistic thought and conducting systematic research served as the foundation and prerequisite for Ya Hanzhang’s thought on atheism propaganda and education. He emphasized enriching the content of propaganda with solid theoretical and historical research to enhance the persuasiveness and scientific rigor of atheism education.
(3) Proposing principles and methods for atheism propaganda and education
Regarding the practical strategies for atheism propaganda and education, Ya Hanzhang proposed a series of principles and methods aimed at improving the effectiveness and focus of these efforts.
First, Ya Hanzhang emphasized that when propagating atheism, one must pay attention to methods and styles to avoid hurting the feelings of religious believers. Ya Hanzhang cited Lenin’s teachings during the leadership of the anti-religious struggle in Soviet Russia, noting: "Care must be taken to avoid hurting the feelings of believers, for hurting their feelings only serves to consolidate blind belief in religion." Consequently, he advocated avoiding simplistic, crude, or condescending approaches in propaganda, suggesting instead that one should persuade people with facts and scientific reasoning. He opposed replacing atheism education with political movements aimed at "eliminating religion," adhering to Lenin's proposal to "fight the religious fog with purely ideological weapons, and only with ideological weapons, with our press and our words." Thus, he resolutely opposed the previous practice of treating the religious masses as hostile forces, emphasizing the need to correctly grasp the nature of ideological struggle within the ranks of the people, ensuring both persistent critique and unity through education. This is a political principle that atheism propaganda must follow.
Second, Ya Hanzhang pointed out that the key targets of atheism propaganda and education should be the broad masses of laboring people, especially the peasantry. He reviewed how, for a considerable period after the founding of the People's Republic of China, atheism education was primarily conducted in cities, with the educated being mostly cadres, students, intellectuals, and workers; the vast numbers of peasants and herdsmen in rural and pastoral areas had little contact with atheism education. However, the vast majority of China’s religious population consists of peasants and herdsmen, and religious activities are most active in these areas. Therefore, he proposed that the strategic focus of atheism education must gradually shift from cities to rural and pastoral areas to capture and consolidate propaganda positions at the grassroots. This thought is consistent with the actual conditions of different periods of China’s socialist construction. Especially after the Reform and Opening-up, the Party and the government have attached greater importance to rural science popularization and the eradication of feudal superstitions, reflecting the practical significance of Ya Hanzhang’s proposal to "move propaganda positions downward."
Third, Ya Hanzhang advocated for diverse forms of propaganda and education, making full use of all available media and cultural forms. He pointed out that the "ideological weapons" mentioned by Lenin included not only traditional public opinion tools like books, newspapers, and lectures, but also artistic means such as drama, film, novels, poetry, radio, cartoons, and even slide shows. Historically, the ruling classes made extensive use of theatrical performances to propagate religious superstition (such as various "ghost plays" and "god plays"), while atheists also created dramas themed around breaking superstition (such as the story of Ximen Bao [21] opposing the "River God taking a bride") to enlighten the people. Ya Hanzhang paid special attention to the role of artistic propaganda; in the 1960s, he participated in and witnessed the debates in the drama circles regarding whether to perform "ghost plays." He believed that in socialist society, traditional plays enjoyed by the masses could be performed appropriately, but it was more important to create and perform artistic works that promote the scientific spirit and propagate atheism.
Fourth, Ya Hanzhang advocated for the institutionalization and long-term nature of atheism propaganda and education, avoiding "gust-of-wind" campaign-style [22] approaches. He believed that atheism education in China is a long-term, meticulous, and arduous piece of ideological work; therefore, specialized institutions should be established to oversee national atheism propaganda and education to ensure that this work proceeds in a planned and led manner over time. Citing Lenin, Ya Hanzhang warned that if one mistakenly believes that "propagating atheism is a small matter, requiring only a few articles or books for a short while, then one will commit what Lenin called 'the biggest and worst mistake.'" He emphasized that atheism education is a major issue concerning the socialist ideological field and must have long-term strategy and organizational guarantees rather than relying on temporary enthusiasm. He suggested setting up specialized departments or research associations within the government or scientific research system to coordinate atheism theoretical research and educational resources, forming a sustained momentum. His writings and appeals also prompted universities and research institutions to maintain sustained attention and project funding for atheism issues. Only through organizational promotion can atheism propaganda and education truly "persist over the long term," reaching deep into the masses and continuing to play a positive role in coalescing people’s hearts and changing outdated customs in the New Era. Under Ya Hanzhang’s active advocacy, the Chinese Atheism Society was established in 1978, with Ya Hanzhang elected as Vice President, providing an important organizational and exchange platform for China’s atheism education and academic research. After stepping down as Vice President, he continued to serve as a consultant to the society for a long time, witnessing and participating in the organizational construction of China’s atheism propaganda and education. In 1999, the society’s journal, Science and Atheism, was founded, and from 2000, annual academic conferences began to be held regularly, providing a solid academic support platform and ideological propaganda position for the in-depth development of atheism education.
Fifth, Ya Hanzhang believed that China’s atheism education must be closely linked with the popularization of science. Ya Hanzhang argued that, on the one hand, although science popularization cannot directly propagate Marxist atheism, the natural and social science knowledge contained within scientific thought—such as the structure and motion of celestial bodies, the formation and evolution of the Earth, the origin and evolution of life (including humans), and the laws of human social development—is conducive to the propaganda and education of Marxist atheism. On the other hand, scientific education that reveals the objective existence and laws of the world belongs, in a broader sense, to the category of atheism education.
III. Contemporary Enlightenment of Ya Hanzhang’s Thought on Atheism Propaganda and Education
Ya Hanzhang’s atheistic thought and his concepts of atheism education are significant achievements in the Sinicization of Marxist atheism and represent a valuable asset in the development of the cause of atheism in China. They provide scientific theoretical guidance and rich practical experience for correctly understanding and handling religious issues and conducting atheism education.
First, adhere to the simultaneous progress of Marxist guidance and atheism education. Ya Hanzhang profoundly elucidated the relationship between the policy of freedom of religious belief and atheism propaganda and education, emphasizing that the two are not contradictory but complementary. The Party’s policy of freedom of religious belief should be interpreted from two sides: on the one hand, recognizing the freedom of any individual to believe in religion; on the other hand, recognizing the freedom of any individual not to believe and to propagate atheism. He explicitly stated: "Conducting atheism education for the masses is not in the slightest contradiction with the Party’s policy of freedom of religious belief; rather, it is the comprehensive implementation of that policy." This conclusion cleared the ideological fog and provided a basis for the legitimacy of atheism propaganda. Its contemporary enlightenment lies in the fact that in the New Era, we must still uphold the guiding position of Marxism in the ideological field, taking atheism propaganda and education as a necessary component of implementing the basic principles of religious work—ensuring the protection of citizens' freedom to believe or not believe while confidently conducting propaganda for scientific atheism. In fact, the report to the 20th National Congress of the CPC emphasized the continuous promotion of Marxist theoretical arming and ideological work, requiring the use of Xi Jinping Thought on Socialism with Chinese Characteristics for a New Era to "coalesce the soul," which is completely consistent with the requirements for strengthening education in materialism and atheism. In July 2021, the "Opinions on Strengthening and Improving Ideological and Political Work in the New Era" issued by the CPC Central Committee and the State Council explicitly pointed out: "Marxist materialism and atheism education must be strengthened." It can be said that adhering to atheism propaganda and education in the New Era is both an inheritance of the concepts of Ya Hanzhang and others and an objective necessity for consolidating the guiding position of Marxism in the ideological field. By strengthening theoretical propaganda and policy guidance, and integrating atheism education into the ideological and political work system of the New Era, we can truly achieve the full and comprehensive implementation of the Party's policy on freedom of religious belief and build a solid ideological foundation of science and rationality throughout society.
Second, confront the phenomenon of superstition in new media and strengthen grassroots atheism propaganda. When analyzing the relationship between religion and superstition, Ya Hanzhang pointed out that religion is a worldview with a complete doctrine and organizational system, whereas "feudal superstition" lacks a system and is merely a means for some to defraud people of money and profit. Therefore, feudal superstition is not religion, and the question of freedom of belief does not apply to it. Regarding those who use superstition to defraud, a socialist state must never let them have their way. This thought has strong realistic enlightenment for the present. First, in the era of rapid development of new media, various types of feudal superstition and pseudo-science are making a comeback via online platforms. Fortune-telling, feng shui, and divination under the banners of "National Studies" [23] or "Metaphysics" have found a market among young people. Phenomena such as fortune-telling through live broadcasts, WeChat official accounts, short videos, and short dramas have appeared to spread feng shui and various feudal superstitions. If this dross of superstition is allowed to rise again, it will erode the scientific and rational spirit of society and impact the mainstream ideology. Therefore, we must use the stance of scientific atheism to meet the resurgence of superstition, increasing the intensity of critiques of feudal superstition and science popularization. We must utilize new media methods liked by the masses to expose the dangers of superstition and spread scientific knowledge, and use internet discourse positions to timely dispel rumors and clarify the source, resisting the spread of online superstitious trends. Second, we must strengthen the construction of grassroots positions to prevent the growth and spread of superstition and religion. Currently, grassroots atheism education is relatively weak, particularly in rural areas where religious and superstitious activities remain prevalent in some places. Religious penetration, illegal proselytization, and feudal superstition are intertwined in some grassroots regions, becoming a difficult point in ideological work. In 2018, the "Opinions on Implementing the Rural Revitalization Strategy" issued by the CPC Central Committee and the State Council explicitly pointed out: "Strengthen atheism propaganda and education, enrich the spiritual and cultural life of the rural masses, and resist feudal superstitious activities." This fully demonstrates that strengthening scientific atheism education in grassroots areas, especially in the countryside, is a necessity of religious work in the New Era. We must integrate atheism propaganda into grassroots cultural construction and mass civilization-building activities, supporting the development of civilized practices to change customs and break superstition; we must also strengthen the role of grassroots Party organizations as "fighting fortresses" in the ideological field, enhancing the scientific literacy of rural grassroots cadres and Party members so they can assume the responsibility of propagating materialism and critiquing feudal superstition. Through policy support and institutional guarantees, atheism education can reach the "last mile" of the grassroots.
Third, focus on leading the beliefs of the youth and innovate methods for atheism propaganda and education. The youth are the future of the Party and the country; the state of their beliefs directly determines the ideological direction of future society. Ya Hanzhang and other older-generation atheism educators recognized early on that scientific worldview education must be strengthened for the youth. This experience is of even greater reference value today. Currently, under the influence of the market economy and diverse ideological trends, a small number of young people, including students at key universities, have developed an interest in religion, and some individuals even...
...throwing themselves into the "embrace of religion." Certain Western religious forces and indigenous extremist groups have also identified youth as a primary target for infiltration, spreading religious and superstitious concepts through online social communities, campus organizations, and other channels in an attempt to influence the values of the young. In response, we must proactively strengthen atheistic propaganda and education for adolescents, advancing with the times and breaking new ground in both content and form. On one hand, we should reinforce the atheistic elements within school ideological and political theory courses and extracurricular activities, integrating the basic principles of Marxist atheism into the main channels of education and teaching. During the primary and middle school stages, emphasis should be placed on scientific common sense and the enlightenment of materialism; at the university level, elective courses or special lectures related to scientific atheism should be offered to encourage college students to systematically master the Marxist view of religion and atheistic theory. On the other hand, we must be adept at using new media and cultural forms that resonate with youth to carry out propaganda. For example, we can explain scientific atheism through carriers such as short videos, short dramas, animation, and popular readings, integrating atheistic thought into cultural products so that youth may receive the baptism of materialism through a process of "moistening things silently" [24]. Simultaneously, we must strengthen the construction of Marxist atheism as a discipline and develop its scientific research platforms, launching more theoretical achievements that face the youth and remain close to reality, thereby providing solid academic support and vivid teaching materials for atheistic education.
In summary, Ya Hanzhang’s thought on atheistic propaganda and education provides valuable enlightenment for promoting scientific atheism in the New Era. This entails: adhering to the guiding position of Marxism to guarantee the legality and legitimacy of atheistic propaganda and education; resolutely struggling against feudal superstition and harmful religious tendencies while focusing on consolidating ideological positions at the grassroots level [25]; and paying close attention to the state of thought and belief among adolescents by strengthening Marxist atheistic education, innovating its content and form, and cultivating successors with firm atheistic convictions. Today, as social trends of thought are diverse and complex and ideological struggles become increasingly intricate, the systematic sorting of the atheistic propaganda and education thoughts of older-generation scholars such as Ya Hanzhang possesses the dual value of theoretical inspiration and practical guidance for strengthening the academic research, propaganda, and education of Marxist atheism in the New Era.
Source: Science and Atheism, Issue 1, 2026 Editor: Huihui