Cheng Enfu: On the Holistic View of Marxist Research
[Abstract] On the basis of reviewing relevant literature, this article explores the holistic view of Marxist research from twelve perspectives: definitional, comprehensive, unifying, hierarchical, developmental, "three-izations," classificatory, disciplinary, sub-disciplinary, destructive-constructive, practical, and interactive. Faced with the vast and profound theoretical, methodological, and conceptual systems of Marxism that advance with the times, we can only demonstrate its scientific nature, truthfulness, practicality, and influence in a panoramic way by systematically organizing and researching it from an all-round and holistic perspective. The holism of Marxism originates from the holism of practice and develops along with the development of practice. Therefore, Marxist holism is not a closed or rigid holism, but one that becomes increasingly rich and multifaceted as practice deepens and develops. Scientifically grasping Marxism from the perspective of holism holds extremely important theoretical and practical significance for proletarian political parties, the development of socialism at home and abroad, and the prosperity of the philosophy and social sciences.
[Keywords] Marxist holism; Sinicization of Marxism; Marxist philosophy; Marxist political economy; Scientific socialism
Marx wrote: "Whatever shortcomings they may have, the merit of my writings is that they are an artistic whole." Strengthening the holistic study of Marxism is an urgent need to eliminate the fragmentation and dismemberment of Marxism and to deepen the all-round understanding of it. It is conducive to helping people grasp the theories that run through the Marxist system at various levels, fields, parts, countries, and periods, and to understanding the lineage of inheritance and development of "total Marxism" that is passed down in one continuous line while advancing with the times. This will push the research on 21st-century Marxism and contemporary Chinese Marxism to a new realm.
I. Literature Review
A total of 87 major documents related to "Marxist holism research" since the year 2000 have been retrieved, and their core arguments reflect the current status of domestic "Marxist holism research."
First, there are general reviews of the achievements in Marxist holism research. These include "An Overview of Marxist Holism Research," "A Review of Domestic Research on the Holism of Marxist Theory," "A Summary of Academic Research on Marxist Holism in Recent Years," and "A Review of Domestic Research on the Issue of Marxist Holism in Recent Years," as well as many articles that include commentary on Marxist holism research. These documents respectively argue that holism is an inherent attribute of the theoretical content and system of Marxism, and the issue of holism is a fundamental problem in researching Marxism. Marxist holism primarily examines the internal connections among its three components: Marxist philosophy, political economy, and scientific socialism. Lenin’s "tripartite division" [1] cannot cover the entirety of Marxist theory; Marxism should also include more than a dozen parts such as political science, sociology, law, military science, history, education, cultural studies, ethics, and anthropology. The holism of Marxism can be summarized as the unity of the Marxist stance, viewpoint, and method. A distinction should be made between the holism of Marxism itself and the holism of the basic principles of Marxism, advocating for a grasp of the connections and differences between the two. The holistic study of Marxism is of great significance for strengthening people's correct understanding and practical application of Marxism.
Second, there are analyses of Marxist holism from the perspectives of its scientific nature, worldview, methodology, and history of development. These documents respectively argue that Marxist holism is determined by the scientific nature of Marxism, and it is the responsibility of Marxist theoretical workers to maintain the highly unified scientific system of Marxism. Marxist holism is embodied in the "historical materialist conception of history," the fundamental worldview for solving practical problems; only by starting from a scientific worldview can one grasp the general characteristics and core essentials of the holism of the Marxist ideological system. Xi Jinping Thought on Socialism with Chinese Characteristics for a New Era uses Marxist historical materialism to observe historical phenomena, analyze historical processes, grasp historical laws, and foresee historical trends. Marxist holism is embodied in providing a methodology for the practice of the cause of the proletariat and human liberation; the category of labor is the logical core of Marxism, providing a new perspective for presenting the internal structure of Marxist holism. Marxist theory is a complete scientific system that unifies holism and hierarchy, and it should be studied comprehensively and systematically. The practical activities of the working class advance with the times, and Marxist theory is likewise a whole that develops in step with the times. Marxist holism is reflected in the historical process of the development and dissemination of Marxism; in a holistic vision, Engels integrated the labor theory of value and the theory of surplus value from political economy, the historical materialist conception of history from philosophy, and scientific socialism into one, forming an "artistic whole" [2] pursued by Marx himself. Regarding the developmental stages of Marxism, one must consider the development of mainstream forms while also covering the changes in non-mainstream forms. The unity of theoretical principles, theoretical application, and theoretical development actually manifests as the formation process of the theoretical system of the holistic development of Marxism. One should advance the holistic study of Marxism and clarify the so-called "opposition between Marx and Engels" fabricated by Western "Marxology." Marxist holism is the theoretical prerequisite for the popularization of Marxism; Lenin’s thoughts on Marxist holism were his answer to the fundamental question of "what is Marxism." Taking different periods of the establishment of our country's socialist market economy theory as an example, it illustrates that the development of Marxist holism is the result of the joint promotion by leaders and scholars. The path of socialism with Chinese characteristics is a holistic practice of Marxist theory; it is the result of the extensive practice of various Marxist disciplinary theories in our country's socialist modernization construction, and the product of the comprehensive combination of the basic principles of Marxism with China's specific realities during the process of the Sinicization of Marxism. Xi Jinping Thought on Socialism with Chinese Characteristics for a New Era reflects a distinct background of Marxist holistic thinking; only by learning and comprehending Xi Jinping Thought on Socialism with Chinese Characteristics for a New Era from the perspective of Marxist holistic thinking can one grasp the fundamentals and learn it thoroughly and deeply.
Other documents criticize Althusser's view, which denies that the young Marx belonged to Marxism and advocates that he should be stripped away from the holistic Marx, thereby sliding into the abyss of dismembering Marx. They also criticize Lebowitz for believing that Capital does not possess the basic elements of Marxist holism, arguing that his research methods, theoretical system, and research content all have one-sided flaws. They point out that Lebowitz’s political economy, with capital as the subject, cannot constitute a holistic analysis of capitalism; thus, his view that the holism of Marxism can only be realized by "transcending" Capital is erroneous.
Looking back, over the past dozen years—following the implementation of the Central Project to Research and Construct Marxist Theory and the establishment of Marxism as a first-level academic discipline—many scholars have conducted extensive discussions from different angles on the proposal, connotation, essentials, and research paths of Marxist holism research. While viewpoints vary, significant progress has been made, though some deficiencies remain. Based on previous studies of Marxist holism, this article proposes a further research framework involving an all-round study from the following twelve perspectives.
II. Twelve Perspectives on Marxist Holism Research
1. Definitional Holistic Research on Marxism Marx and Engels never gave a formal definition of Marxism. Engels only remarked that the theory of communism is the "doctrine of the conditions for the liberation of the proletariat," a "science of real people and their historical development," and "our theory is not a dogma, but an explanation of a development process that contains a series of interconnected stages," and so on. Later, Lenin pointed out that "Marxism is a very profound and multifaceted doctrine," and "Marxism is the system of Marx's views and teachings," serving as the theory and program of the labor movement in all civilized countries of the world, while "the essence of Marxism, the living soul of Marxism, is the concrete analysis of concrete situations." Stalin defined Marxism (including Leninism) from four aspects: "Marxism is the science of the laws governing the development of nature and society, the science of the revolution of the oppressed and exploited masses, the science of the victory of socialism in all countries, and the science of building a communist society." Mao Zedong pointed out: "Marxism-Leninism is the theory created by Marx, Engels, Lenin, and Stalin based on reality, the general conclusion drawn from historical reality and revolutionary reality." Deng Xiaoping pointed out: "Another name for Marxism is communism."
In fact, over the 170 years since the birth of Marxism, through the continuous development by the leaders of communist parties and Marxist scholars in various countries, Marxism and its various localized theoretical systems have become a rich and broad whole. Therefore, Marxism can be innovatively defined and expounded from six levels: the subjects of creation and development, academic connotation, social function, people's well-being, values, and international relations.
First, defining it from the level of the subjects of creation and development, Marxism is a theoretical system initiated by Marx and Engels and increasingly developed and perfected by their successors. Second, defining it from the level of academic connotation, Marxism is a scientific ideological system concerning the laws of development of nature, society, and human thought. Third, defining it from the level of social function, Marxism is a guiding ideological system concerning the socialist revolution and construction, as well as the transition to a communist society. Fourth, defining it from the level of people's well-being, Marxism is a system of principles and ideas concerning the improvement of people's livelihoods and the realization of free and comprehensive human development. Fifth, defining it from the level of values, Marxism is a cultural and ideological system concerning belief and values. Sixth, defining it from the level of international relations, Marxism is an international ideological system concerning world peace and development and the promotion of building a community with a shared future for humanity.
2. Comprehensive Holistic Research on Marxism On July 1, 2003, Hu Jintao stated in a speech at a theoretical seminar on the "Three Represents" [3] Important Thought: "The worldview and methodology of dialectical materialism and historical materialism are the most fundamental theoretical features of Marxism." "The realization of a communist society with extremely rich material wealth, highly improved spiritual realms for the people, and the free and comprehensive development of every individual is the loftiest social ideal of Marxism." "All theories and struggles of a Marxist political party should be dedicated to realizing the fundamental interests of the broadest masses of the people; this is the most distinct political stance of Marxism." "Insisting on proceeding from reality in all things, integrating theory with practice, seeking truth from facts, and testing and developing truth in practice are the most important theoretical qualities of Marxism." This means that the issue of Marxist holism can be explored by comprehensively summarizing these four levels: theoretical features, social ideals, political stance, and theoretical qualities.
First, Marx and Engels critically absorbed the "rational kernel" [4] of Hegelian dialectics and the "basic kernel" of Feuerbach's materialism to create dialectical materialism and historical materialism. Marxist philosophy is the scientific worldview and methodology for understanding the three major realms of nature, society, and human thought.
Second, in the future society, due to the high development of productive forces and the great abundance of social products, private property and the commodity economy will be eliminated, allowing for the implementation of a society-wide planned economy and the principle of "from each according to his ability, to each according to his need." Because the people will have achieved the most thorough rupture not only with all private property but also with "traditional ideas" [5] based on private property, and will have established an outlook on life, the world, and values centered on the collective and society, they will become "new people" with high communist ideological consciousness and moral qualities. Due to the elimination of private ownership and classes, the great development of productive forces will cause the opposition and major differences between industries, between urban and rural areas, and between physical and mental labor to disappear. Each person will no longer be fixed to a certain type of labor, have one-sided development of abilities, or reside permanently in one place, thereby forming an association of free individuals across all strata and fields, capable of fully and freely developing their individual potential and social relations. Thus, the communism scientifically foreseen by Marxism is an ideal society.
Third, "The Communists fight for the attainment of the immediate aims, for the enforcement of the momentary interests of the working class; but in the movement of the present, they also represent and take care of the future of that movement."
All theory and struggle of a Marxist party, as the vanguard of the working class, must naturally be dedicated to realizing the fundamental interests of the working class. Furthermore, the fundamental interests of the working class represent the fundamental interests of other people across different periods. Thus, it can be said that Marxism possesses a political standpoint dedicated to the fundamental interests of the working class and all people.
Fourth, Marxism "does not start from principles, but from facts." "Correct theory must be elucidated and developed in combination with concrete circumstances and according to existing conditions." Marxism adheres to the cognitive methods of seeking truth from facts, maintaining close ties between theory and practice, and testing and developing truth. These methods demonstrate the most important theoretical qualities of Marxism even more clearly than the specific truths it elucidates.
3. Research on the Unity of Marxism as a Totality
Xi Jinping has pointed out: "The Marxist standpoint, viewpoints, and methods run through Marxism-Leninism, Mao Zedong Thought, and the theoretical system of socialism with Chinese characteristics; they are the essence of the scientific ideological system of Marxism." One aspect of the study of Marxist totality is to elucidate it from the perspective of the dialectical unity of the Marxist standpoint, viewpoints, and methods.
First, the standpoint is the footing [6] from which people observe, understand, and handle problems. This footing is fundamentally determined by people's economic, political, and social interests and status. The Marxist standpoint is the standpoint of the working class and the laboring people.
Second, viewpoints are people's outlooks on things. Marxist viewpoints consist of scientific knowledge regarding the general laws of development of nature, society, and human thought. They are a scientific summary of the experience of natural evolution and human social practice, covering an extremely wide range. Marxist viewpoints are layered. At the highest level are the basic viewpoints concerning dialectical materialism and historical materialism, which constitute a worldview and methodology. At the second level, Marxist viewpoints are extensively reflected in the specific views of Marxist political economy, politics, cultural studies, sociology, anthropology, jurisprudence, studies of capitalism, studies of socialism, and philosophy. Various Marxist disciplines also contain many specific viewpoints, which generally belong to the third or fourth levels of Marxism. At each level, the issues to be explained and their timing have their own scope and significant differences.
Third, the method is a methodology unified with the Marxist worldview; it is the fundamental ideological and working method that guides us in correctly understanding and transforming the objective and subjective worlds. Marxist methods are also layered. It should be said that the materialist dialectic belongs to the fundamental ideological method of Marxism and occupies the highest level of the methodological system. For the humanities and social sciences—such as economics, politics, cultural studies, sociology, anthropology, jurisprudence, and international relations—one must utilize second- or third-level methodologies specific to the discipline in addition to the materialist dialectic. However, the specific methods of each discipline are based on the materialist dialectic, and some are direct extensions and expansions of it.
In short, the Marxist standpoint is the foundation, the viewpoints are the core, and the method is the soul; the three possess profound internal connections and consistency. The more scientific a viewpoint or method is, the more accurately it can reflect the correct standpoint of the working class, the laboring people, and all of humanity. The more correct the method, the more correct and profound the viewpoint, and the more it can reflect the correct standpoint. The scientific nature, class nature, and people-centered nature of Marxism are consistent.
4. Research on the Layered Nature of Marxism as a Totality
Marxism is an organic whole composed of basic principles, general theories, and concrete judgments. These three possess interconnections and identity, yet also exhibit significant differences. Concrete judgments are the specific extensions of basic principles or general theories, while basic principles are the theoretical sublimation of general theories and concrete judgments. The three differ in their applicable time, space, and focus.
Marxist basic principles refer to the most fundamental and universal truths of Marxism. Examples include "the principle of the material unity of the world," "the principle of the unity of opposites in dialectics," "the principle that social existence determines social consciousness," "the principle that productive forces determine the relations of production," "the principle that the economic base determines the superstructure," and "the principle of the replacement of social forms from lower to higher levels" elucidated by Marxist philosophy. Marxist political economy elucidates "the principle of the dual character of labor," "the principle of surplus value," "the principle of the basic contradictions of capitalism," "the principle of the four links [7] of the relations of production," and "the principle of social production and reproduction." The Marxist study of socialism (scientific socialism) elucidates "the principle of class struggle," "the principle of the dictatorship of the proletariat," and "the principle of the theory of world history."
It must be noted that Marxist basic principles can and must be developed and innovated. For example, Lenin proposed the "theory of imperialism," Stalin proposed the "principle of the purpose of production under monopoly capitalism and socialism," Mao Zedong proposed the "principle of contradiction" and the "principle of practice," the theoretical system of socialism with Chinese characteristics proposed the "principle of the socialist market economy," and Xi Jinping proposed the "principle of whole-process people's democracy," and so forth.
Marxist general theories refer to ordinary Marxist truths that do not constitute principles. These include, for example, Marxist theories on scientific and technological development, joint-stock systems, classifications of unemployment, forms of distribution, revolutionary strategy, and methods of transition to communism. This type of general theory contains multiple factors, such as commonality and individuality, time and space, international and national conditions, and history and reality; these theories reflect constantly changing circumstances according to time and place.
Marxist concrete judgments refer to specific extensions based on basic principles and general theories; they are judgments directed at specific problems at a certain point in time. Concrete judgments are the "actual application of basic principles" and will change along with "extraordinarily violent changes in the conditions of social life." They often involve specific times, places, people, events, and nations. They are usually specific assertions made regarding historical events or development conditions in a specific country or region during a specific period, possessing clear directionality, specificity, timeliness, and regionality rather than universality. For example, the assessments made by classical Marxist writers on whether a revolutionary situation had arrived in a certain country or whether a violent revolutionary method was necessary belong clearly to the category of concrete judgments.
5. Research on the Developmental Nature of Marxism as a Totality
Although not every form or stage that appears in the development of Marxism possesses significance for the general, overall stages of the history of Marxist development—only those that represent the historical era and trends of Marxist development, and thus serve as the mainstream forms, can become specific stages in that history—the history of Marxist development can objectively be studied from multiple angles.
First is the study of classical Marxist writers, such as the thought of Marx, Engels, Lenin, Stalin, and Mao Zedong. Second is the study of leaders of Communist Parties in major countries, such as the Marxist thought of Deng Xiaoping, Xi Jinping, Ho Chi Minh, Kim Il-sung, Castro, and Zyuganov. Third is the study of Marxist scholars, such as the Marxist thought of David Harvey, Makoto Itoh, Li Dazhao, Li Da, and Liu Guoguang. Fourth is the study of non-Marxist or anti-Marxist scholars, such as the questioning or attacks on Marxism by Eugen Dühring, Eduard Bernstein, Paul Samuelson, and Steven N. S. Cheung. Fifth is the study of the history of development in specialized fields or sub-disciplines of Marxism, such as Marxist philosophy, economics, politics, sociology, law, cultural studies, studies of capitalism, and studies of socialism.
From the perspective of a complete and comprehensive world history of Marxist development, it should include systematic research from these five angles and fields. It covers all important theories related to the process of Marxist development, including leaders and scholars, mainstream and tributaries, global and domestic, overall and sub-disciplinary, inheritance and innovation, upholding fundamentals and revision, and support and opposition.
If we divide and elucidate the history of Marxist development from the perspective of classical Marxist writers and leaders of the Communist Party of China, it can be divided into six stages: the history of Marxist development under Marx and Engels, under Lenin, under Stalin, under Mao Zedong, under Deng Xiaoping and others (the theoretical system of socialism with Chinese characteristics), and under Xi Jinping.
Two points need clarification here: First, the previous practice of subsuming Stalinism under Leninism was inaccurate. Stalin possessed a systematic and original body of Marxist thought, and the relationship between the two was one of theoretical inheritance and development. We cannot deny Stalin’s milestone status in the history of Marxist development simply because the West smears him or because he made errors such as the expansion of the suppression of counter-revolutionaries. Second, Leninism and Stalinism played an important role in providing theoretical guidance for socialist construction in the Soviet Union and the world, as well as for the international communist movement, and actually guided the establishment and development of a group of socialist countries. Thus, they belong not only to the theory of the "Sovietization" of Marxism but also to international-level Marxist theoretical systems standing alongside Marxism itself.
6. Research on the "Threefold Transformation" of Marxism as a Totality
On October 27, 2009, the Fourth Plenary Session of the 17th CPC Central Committee reviewed and adopted the Decision of the CPC Central Committee on Several Major Issues Concerning Strengthening and Improving Party Building Under the New Situation, which emphasized the need to vigorously promote the Sinicization, modernization [8], and popularization of Marxism. The report to the 19th CPC National Congress pointed out: "We must promote the Sinicization, modernization, and popularization of Marxism, and build a socialist ideology with strong cohesive and leadership power." This requires us to conduct research from the collective perspective of Sinicization, modernization, and popularization and their mutual relationships.
The Sinicization of Marxism means combining the basic principles of Marxism with China’s concrete reality and the best of traditional Chinese culture, scientifically understanding and solving Chinese problems, and making Marxism a new theory with Chinese characteristics. The Chinese Communists, with Comrade Mao Zedong as their chief representative, combined the basic principles of Marxism-Leninism with the concrete reality of the Chinese revolution and construction during the periods of the New Democratic Revolution and socialist revolution and construction. They achieved revolutionary victory and great achievements in comprehensive construction, and proposed a series of important ideas regarding New Democracy and socialist construction, thereby creating Mao Zedong Thought and achieving the first leap in the Sinicization of Marxism. The Chinese Communists, with Comrades Deng Xiaoping, Jiang Zemin, and Hu Jintao as their chief representatives, persisted in and developed Marxism during the new period of reform, opening up, and socialist modernization. They achieved great successes in building socialism with Chinese characteristics and formed the theoretical system of socialism with Chinese characteristics, achieving a new leap in the Sinicization of Marxism. The Chinese Communists, with Comrade Xi Jinping as their chief representative, have persisted in combining the basic principles of Marxism with China’s concrete reality and the best of traditional Chinese culture. They have achieved great successes in building socialism with Chinese characteristics in the New Era. Based on the theoretical system of socialism with Chinese characteristics, they have proposed a series of original new concepts, new ideas, and new strategies for state governance, and created Xi Jinping Thought on Socialism with Chinese Characteristics for a New Era, achieving a new leap in the Sinicization of Marxism.
The modernization of Marxism means combining Marxist theory with the changes of the times and future development, constantly enriching and developing the original theory, and giving Marxism new connotations with the characteristics of the era. Marxism, born in 1848, has spanned more than two centuries of human historical changes. Generally speaking, the "19th-century Marxism" initiated by Marx and Engels, as a brand-new revolutionary theory and doctrine of human liberation, promoted the great leap from utopian socialism to scientific socialism. The innovative theories formed by Lenin, Stalin, Mao Zedong, Deng Xiaoping, and others on the basis of inheriting Marxism—theories consistent with their own national conditions—can be called "20th-century Marxism," which guided the rapid development of world socialist practice. Xi Jinping Thought on Socialism with Chinese Characteristics for a New Era has allowed Marxism to radiate youthful vitality in the 21st century. It is dedicated to solving the "Chinese problem" of national rejuvenation and the "community" problem of human development amidst great struggles both at home and abroad. This makes the primary sample of 21st-century Marxism possess the distinct, vivid colors of New Era China and the era-defining connotation of "changing the world" under the new international situation.
The popularization of Marxism entails integrating Marxist theory with the masses and their professional duties, achieving effective dissemination so that the audience truly learns and applies it, thereby ensuring that Marxism possesses a mass subject armed with theory.
In essence, the Sinicization, modernization, and popularization of Marxism constitute an interconnected, inseparable, and unified whole, in which Sinicization is the core, modernization is the key, and popularization is the foundation.
7. Categorical Holistic Research of Marxism
In April 2004, Li Changchun pointed out at the working conference for the Central Project to Study and Build Marxist Theory: "We must deeply study and accurately expound the basic viewpoints in the classic works of Marxism, helping people distinguish which are the basic principles of Marxism that must be adhered to over the long term, which are the theoretical judgments that need to be enriched and developed in combination with new realities, which are the dogmatic understandings of Marxism that must be broken, and which are the erroneous viewpoints attached to the name of Marxism that must be clarified."
This means that the scientific nature and integrity of Marxism can be expounded from the perspective of distinguishing these "four categories" and from several theoretical levels. Since the basic principles of Marxism are characterized by their scientific nature, long-term relevance, and effectiveness, they must be persistently upheld; there are no basic principles that do not require long-term adherence. What do not require long-term adherence are merely specific conclusions drawn from these basic principles based on the special circumstances of a particular time or place.
Regarding the view held in some works that the basic principles of Marxism cannot be innovated but only applied, it must be emphasized that basic principles can indeed achieve enrichment, expansion, development, and innovation alongside the progress of practice or the deepening of theoretical understanding. For example, the development of Marx's labor theory of value, theory of surplus value, and reproduction theory; the development of Lenin's theory of imperialism and theory of the state and revolution; and the innovation represented by the theory of the primary stage of socialism and the theory of the socialist market economy.
Naturally, erroneous understandings of Marxism often lead to unhealthy tendencies such as revisionism, dogmatism, or pragmatism; thus, dogmatic understandings must be broken within the holistic study of Marxism. For example, a dogmatic understanding of the "Two Nevers" [9] would lead to the negation or belittling of the "Two Inevitabilities" (the inevitable victory of socialism and the inevitable demise of capitalism), or even the view that countries like China and the Soviet Union, where revolutions succeeded, were "premature births" of revolution. "There exists a historical and dialectical relationship between the 'Two Ruptures' [10] and the 'Two Nevers'; the latter serves as a deepening, detailing, refinement, and development of the 'Two Inevitabilities,'" and cannot be used to negate the ultimate goal of communism, which is the realization of the "Two Ruptures" with private property and traditional ideas.
Research into the scientific nature and integrity of Marxism cannot be separated from clarifying certain erroneous views, such as the notion that "Marx and Engels rejected justice as an unrealistic illusion" and that they formed their own claims of justice unrelated to the historical materialist conception of history. Other examples include: the belief that Marx's "re-establishment of individual property" meant the restoration of individual ownership of the means of production or labor power, and that the joint-stock system or the rural household contract responsibility system are its forms of realization; the belief that Marx's political economy lacks mathematical and quantitative analysis compared to earlier or contemporary economic works; the belief that Marx's economic writings are works of economic philosophy rather than economics; the belief that Marx’s principles of economic cycles and crises are outdated; the belief that socialist public ownership cannot be efficiently combined with a market economic system; and the belief that distribution according to work cannot be implemented under the conditions of a socialist market economy. Such erroneous viewpoints are relatively popular in Chinese and foreign theoretical circles and must be cleared up one by one.
8. Disciplinary Holistic Research of Marxism
In 2005, China established Marxism Theory as a first-level discipline. Currently, it comprises seven second-level disciplines: Basic Principles of Marxism, History of the Development of Marxism, Research on the Sinicization of Marxism, Research on Overseas Marxism, Ideological and Political Education, Basic Issues of Modern and Contemporary Chinese History, and Party Building.
Among these, the first four are the fundamental disciplines for the holistic study of Marxism, while the latter three are supplementary disciplines that study Marxism holistically from different themes and directions. The discipline of Marxist theory emphasizes the integrity of Marxist theory, highlighting the dialectical unity of theory and practice, logic and history, inheritance and innovation, research and teaching, and scientificity and class nature. Therefore, we can study and expound upon it from the perspective of the holistic relationship among the seven second-level disciplines.
Taking the study of the Resolution of the CPC Central Committee on the Major Achievements and Historical Experience of the Party over the Past Century, adopted at the Sixth Plenary Session of the 19th CPC Central Committee, as an example, we can holistically grasp and study the main content of these seven second-level disciplines.
The Communist Party of China was founded under the guidance of the Comintern and is the crystallization of the study and reception of Marxism-Leninism disseminated from abroad. During the various periods of revolution, construction, and reform, China persisted in combining the basic principles of Marxism with China's specific realities and with China's fine traditional culture, thereby achieving new leaps in the theory of Sinicized Marxism—namely Mao Zedong Thought, the theoretical system of socialism with Chinese characteristics, and Xi Jinping Thought on Socialism with Chinese Characteristics for a New Era. In the history of the development of Marxism, the theory of Sinicized Marxism is the second milestone following the theory of Sovietized Marxism. Modern and contemporary Chinese history proves that why the CPC can, and why socialism with Chinese characteristics is good, boils down to the fact that Marxism works. Party building begins first with ideological and theoretical building, continuously learning and applying Marxism and its Sinicized theories, thereby establishing great feats and major achievements that shine through the annals of history. Research on ideological and political education must be based on the basic principles, the history of development, the Sinicization, and the overseas study of Marxism, systematically grasping the history of the Party, the history of New China, the history of reform and opening up, and the history of the development of socialism, so as to realize "Three Near-nesses" [11] and the "Four Confidences" [12] in research and education.
In short, perceiving the Resolution from the perspective of holistically grasping the main content of the seven second-level disciplines of Marxist theory is a vital task for current disciplinary construction, publicity, and education.
9. Sub-disciplinary Holistic Research of Marxism
Sub-disciplinary holistic research of Marxism refers to expounding Marxism from the perspectives of philosophy, economics, political science, cultural studies, sociology, history, anthropology, international relations, and their mutual relations.
Marxist doctrine includes the philosophical system of dialectical materialism and historical materialism, the political economy system of labor theory and surplus value theory, and the communist studies system of the theory of the dictatorship of the proletariat and the association of free individuals (usually called scientific socialism). It also includes the political science system of the theory of the state and the party, the cultural studies system of humanistic spirit and literature and art, the sociological system of social structure and social contradictions, the anthropological system of human origins and development, the international relations system of world inequality and imperialism, and so on.
At present, we must actively respond to General Secretary Xi Jinping's call to uphold the guiding position of Marxism in the field of philosophy and social sciences in China and to build philosophy and social sciences with Chinese characteristics, Chinese style, and Chinese ethos. Adhering to the guidance of Marxism is the fundamental hallmark distinguishing contemporary Chinese philosophy and social sciences from others. Using Marxism and its Sinicized theories as a guide to form an all-round, all-field, and all-element disciplinary, academic, and discourse system for philosophy and social sciences, it is especially urgent to construct and improve the various branches of Marxism. This is also an important direction for the development of the "New Humanities."
For example, there is much literature and fierce debate in Chinese and foreign theoretical circles regarding civilization. We should consciously use Marxism and its Sinicized theories to explore various concepts of civilization—such as material, spiritual, political, social, and ecological civilization—and their relationships. We should conduct comparative studies of various forms and characteristics of civilization, ancient and modern, Chinese and foreign, to elucidate that Chinese socialist civilization is more progressive than capitalist civilization. We must actively construct and improve the theoretical, conceptual, and methodological systems of Marxist "civilizational studies" to lay a solid disciplinary and academic foundation for enhancing China's international discourse power.
Similarly, we should create and improve Marxist international relations studies based on new concepts such as promoting the building of a community with a shared future for humanity and the common values of all humanity. This discipline must elucidate the relationship between standing truly on the side of the world's people and committing to the overall interests of all humanity. It must clarify the difference between the common values of all humanity—peace, development, equity, justice, democracy, and freedom—and the "universal values" of the monopoly bourgeoisie promoted by the West. It must clarify the relationship between opposing imperialism, hegemonism, and colonialism and strengthening solidarity with the people of all countries and supporting just struggles. It must clarify the relationship between reforming the international economic and political order and the democratization and fairness of international relations, thereby shaping the discourse power and influence of the Marxist school of international relations in the global academic community.
In short, we should establish and improve the various branches of Marxism and continuously refine them to make the body of Marxism more robust and more appealing.
10. "Breaking and Establishing" Holistic Research of Marxism
One of the important approaches to the holistic study of Marxism is to provide a panoramic exposition from the perspectives of critique and construction, breaking and establishing, deconstruction and reconstruction, and their interactivity.
Some argue that Marxism is over-critical and under-constructive—so-called "breaking without establishing." Others detach "Marxism as a revolutionary theory" from "Marxism as a constructive theory," believing that Marx's views were useful during the revolutionary period but are useless during the period of socialist construction. These two views fail to fully reflect the functional positioning and historical significance of Marxism.
It should be recognized that Marxism possesses the distinct characteristics of a critical spirit and revolutionary will. At the same time, it should be seen that the Marxist exposition of the laws of development of nature, society, and thought involves complementary "breaking and establishing," interactive "critique and construction," and mutually reinforcing "deconstruction and reconstruction."
In the history of the development of Marxism and its Sinicization, we broke mechanical materialism and established dialectical materialism. We broke the idealist conception of history and established historical materialism. We broke idealist dialectics and established materialist dialectics. We broke the political economy of capital and established the political economy of labor. We broke utopian socialism and established scientific socialism. We broke the dictatorship of the bourgeoisie and established the dictatorship of the proletariat (the people's democratic dictatorship). We broke the theory of Old Democracy and established the theory of New Democracy. We broke the capitalist market economy view centered on private ownership and established the socialist market economy view centered on public ownership. We broke the traditional view of development and established the Scientific Outlook on Development. We broke the capital-centered view and established the people-centered view. We broke the capitalist view of money-democracy and established the socialist view of whole-process democracy. We broke the neo-imperialist view of hegemonism and established the view of a community with a shared future for humanity. We broke the decadent capitalist view of culture and established the advanced socialist view of culture. We broke the bourgeois individualist value system and established the socialist collectivist value system, and so forth.
We should demonstrate the grand system of Marxism—which comes from the same lineage but advances with the times—holistically through the two basic levels of deconstructing erroneous theories and establishing scientific ones. Marxists emphasize scientific "breaking" and "establishing," whereas non-Marxists often deviate from objective facts and laws of development to "break" and "establish" indiscriminately. For example, Kelso and Adler dissolved the Communist Manifesto to promote the Capitalist Manifesto. Fukuyama dissolved the theory of the communist trend to promote the theory of the "end of history" for capitalism. David Lane dissolved the Leninist theory of revolution to promote the theory of the disappearance of the proletariat. Janos Kornai dissolved the theory of a market economy centered on public ownership to promote the theory of a privatized market economy. Steven N. S. Cheung dissolved the labor theory of value to promote the theory of the value of factors of production. We should, with full confidence, comprehensively and profoundly demonstrate the logical rigor and practical verifiability of Marxism in response to various fallacies and doubts.
11. Pragmatic Holistic Research of Marxism
Marx and Engels wrote: "The philosophers have only interpreted the world in various ways; the point is to change it." To change the world, one must use Marxist methods and theories for pragmatic research, primarily policy research. That is to say, a pragmatic holistic exposition can be made from the perspective of Marxist methods, theories, and policies and their mutual relationships. Policy is the code of conduct and important measures formulated to realize certain lines, principles, and goals. Marxism always puts forward policy proposals on the basis of scientific methods and theories.
Engels first proposed a series of policy positions concerning economics, politics, ethnicity, religion, education, and marriage and the family in Principles of Communism. Subsequently, in the Manifesto of the Communist Party, Marx and Engels formulated ten primary policy measures for the most advanced capitalist countries, such as: the abolition of property in land and application of all rents of land to public purposes; a heavy progressive or graduated income tax; abolition of all rights of inheritance; confiscation of the property of all emigrants and rebels; centralization of credit in the hands of the state, by means of a national bank with state capital and an exclusive monopoly; centralization of the means of communication and transport in the hands of the state; extension of factories and instruments of production owned by the state, the bringing into cultivation of waste-lands, and the improvement of the soil generally in accordance with a common plan; equal liability of all to work and the establishment of industrial armies, especially for agriculture; combination of agriculture with manufacturing industries and the gradual abolition of all the distinction between town and country; and free education for all children in public schools, abolition of children's factory labor in its present form, and combination of education with industrial production, etc.
In contemporary capitalist countries, Marxists (including Communists and Marxist scholars) continuously propose policy positions to resolve a series of problems such as economic crises, the gap between rich and poor, ecological degradation, educational equity, healthcare systems, vulgarity in art and literature, racial discrimination, social crime, peaceful diplomacy, and external threats. For example, Gennady Zyuganov, Chairman of the Communist Party of the Russian Federation, in his "Ten Steps to a People's Government," and Sam Webb, former Chairman of the Communist Party USA, in his programmatic article "The Socialist Party of the 21st Century: Party, Theory, and Vision," have both expounded basic policy positions suited to their respective countries.
The Communist Party of China (CPC), throughout the various periods of revolution, construction, and reform, has consistently used Marxist methods and theories to conduct concrete analyses of problems, promptly formulating, revising, and implementing policy measures across all fields. Consequently, it has achieved major successes in the New Democratic Revolution, the socialist revolution and construction, reform, opening up, and socialist modernization, and the construction of socialism with Chinese characteristics in the New Era.
Currently, in the process of studying the history of the Party, the history of New China, the history of reform and opening up, the history of socialist development, and the Resolution of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China on the Major Achievements and Historical Experience of the Party over the Past Century, we should systematically categorize the primary policy thoughts and their evolution based on Marxism and its Sinicized theories and methods. We must carry out a deep, holistic cultivation of Marxist pragmatism, strictly avoiding "empty talk" [13] in theoretical propaganda and research. This will better promote the close integration of theory with practice, facilitate practical research on theory guiding specific policies, and allow Marxist think tanks to fulfill their role in offering advice and suggestions for "the country’s priorities" [14].
12. Holistic Research on the Interactivity of Marxism
Theories of Marxism and its Sinicization are mostly named after leaders; thus, it is generally believed that Marxism can only be developed and innovated by Marxist classical writers and Communist leaders, while scholars merely provide interpretation, propagation, and defense. However, an increasing number of insightful people now advocate that one of the horizons for holistic Marxist research is to expound from the perspective of how leaders and scholars respectively develop Marxism, creating an interaction that jointly promotes theoretical innovation.
For instance, some scholars argue that in the history of Marxist development, the union of leader-figures of the proletariat engaged in practical activities with innovative theorists is not surprising. The movement and struggle as a whole require them to be so to be competent in their positions, while their status, insight, and experience provide them with this possibility. Other scholars believe that Marxist politicians and theorists constitute two distinct groups of innovators. The theoretical innovation carried out by Marxist politicians emphasizes the practical side, while the theoretical innovation of Marxist theorists emphasizes the academic side.
In fact, an interactive and mutually reinforcing relationship exists between the Marxist theory of leaders governing the Party and state and the Marxist theory of scholars pursuing academic truth. There is only one scientific, advancing with the times Marxist system. However, the two main subjects who "uphold the fundamentals and break new ground" in the Marxist system after Marx and Engels should be both leaders and scholars. This recognition does not "fragment" the unified Marxist system in the slightest; it merely reflects objectively the two main threads of the development of Marxism and its Sinicized theory—namely, the high degree of ideological consistency and complementarity between the guiding ideology for governing the Party and state and the academic thought of pursuing truth.
Under the guidance of the leaders' thoughts on governing the Party and state, scholars independently conduct academic research and offer wisdom and strategies from a theoretical perspective. Leaders, in turn, select governance theories and policy proposals from the scholars' pursuit of truth. Together, they promote the development of Marxist theory and practice. We must recognize the major role of scholars in the development of Marxism: "Many Marxist viewpoints appear for the first time in Party documents, but from the perspective of the entire academic community, they are not necessarily original. Therefore, we cannot replace 'academic Marxism' with 'political Marxism'."
The development of Marxism as it advances with the times is a historical process full of interactivity between leaders and scholars. For example, the great discussion on "Practice is the Sole Criterion for Testing Truth" [15] is a typical example of benign interaction between political and academic circles. Since the beginning of reform and opening up, many theories and policies regarding the socialist market economy, the shareholding system, equity and efficiency, intellectual property rights, and the development of the cultural economy were first advocated by staunchly innovative Marxist economists. It is only in current academic research and interpretation that insufficient attention is paid to the progress made by scholars on major theoretical issues, and there is a lack of specialized, in-depth, and meticulous research. This leads to an inability to comprehensively and systematically understand that the development of Marxism is an interactive historical process, and an inability to deeply grasp the mutually reinforcing relationship between the Marxist theory of governance and the Marxist theory of scholarship. Therefore, in the future, we should strengthen systematic holistic research on the complementary and interactive aspects of the Marxist views held by Communist leaders and scholars in major countries.
III. Conclusion: Clarifying Several Misconceptions
Xi Jinping pointed out: "Marxism is a great creation in human history. In the history of human thought, in terms of scientific rigor, truth, influence, and scope of dissemination, no other ideology or theory has reached the height of Marxism, nor has any doctrine exerted such a massive influence on the world as Marxism." Facing the vast and profound theoretical, methodological, and conceptual systems of Marxism that advance with the times, we can only demonstrate its scientific nature, truth, practicality, and influence in a panoramic way if we systematically categorize and study it from an all-encompassing, holistic perspective. To this end, we must clear up certain inaccurate or erroneous perceptions.
First, there is the opinion that Marxism can only serve as a method, denying its attribute as an ideological system. In fact, method is only one component of the entire Marxist ideological system. Holistic research must combine standpoint, viewpoint, and method, and integrate the conceptual system, the system of principles, the policy system, and the methodological system.
Second, there is the opinion that Marxist research and the teaching and research work of university Schools of Marxism should be limited to the "three component parts of Marxism" mentioned by Lenin [16] and the scope of Marxism as a first-level academic discipline. In fact, the entirety of Marxist research requires all core liberal arts disciplines and their teaching and research institutions to work together to establish a comprehensive and systematic "Grand Marxist Outlook," organically combining exquisite academic research, broad theoretical propaganda, and effective policy exploration.
Third, there is the opinion that Marxism is merely revolutionary theory and ideology. In fact, Marxist theory is ideology, but it is simultaneously academic thought. Marxism is not just general academic thought; more importantly, it is the most scientific academic system.
Fourth, there is the opinion that Marxism is outdated, or "good to look at but useless," or lacking in theories of construction. In fact, looking at Capital alone, Marx’s discussions on the socialist and communist economic forms appear dozens of times, expounding a series of issues such as ownership, proportional development, economic planning, distribution systems, agriculture and land, education, and the family. The theory of the Sinicization of Marxism, in particular, has comprehensively and systematically elucidated the theory and policy of socialist modernization.
Fifth, there is the opinion that Marxism is a "high and mighty" theory that has nothing to do with people's livelihoods and well-being, such as entrepreneurship, employment, income distribution, housing, social security, and marriage and the family. In fact, Marxist classical writers, Communist leaders, and Marxist scholars have all attached great importance to and specifically expounded on issues of livelihood and well-being, providing a vast amount of theoretical and policy-oriented discourse that is both inherited and advances with the times.
Sixth, there is the opinion that since Marxism must also be tested by practice, it does not matter whether one conforms to basic Marxist principles and methods. In fact, only socio-historical "totality of practice" can serve as the sole criterion for testing truth; individual or local practices are insufficient to prove or refute the basic principles and methods of Marxism derived from practice. We should affirm and emphasize both practice-based testing and logical proof as the two methods and paths for determining the truth of a proposition (idea).
Seventh, there is the opinion that only religious belief provides a life faith and values. In fact, since the onset of the modern era, people have believed in various systematic theoretical systems or "isms," such as Western "universal values," constitutionalism, neo-liberalism, etc., including belief in Marxism and Communism. However, only the Marxist faith in life and basic values are scientific and advanced, and they will ultimately become universal and realized throughout the world.
Eighth, there is the opinion that Marxism and Communism are two completely different things, and that Communism is ethereal and unrealizable. In fact, Marxism holds that communist society (which is also constantly developing, improving, and staged) is the most civilized, highest, and final social form of humanity, and thus it is the loftiest social ideal of Marxism. In this sense, Marxism and Communism belong to the same theoretical system. We should strengthen research on the unity of the faith in Marxism and the belief in socialism and communism.
The holism of Marxism originates from the totality of practice and develops alongside it. Therefore, Marxist holism is not a closed or stagnant holism, but one that becomes increasingly rich and multifaceted as practice deepens. Scientifically grasping Marxism from a holistic perspective is of immense theoretical and practical significance for proletarian parties, the development of socialism at home and abroad, and the prosperity of philosophy and the social sciences. As Comrade Mao Zedong pointed out: "If our Party has one hundred to two hundred comrades who have learned Marxism-Leninism systematically rather than in fragments, practically rather than emptily, it will greatly increase our Party's fighting power."