Li Shen: Traditional Chinese Culture and Atheism
[Editor’s Note] At the meeting celebrating the 100th anniversary of the founding of the Communist Party of China, General Secretary Xi Jinping first proposed the important perspective of combining the basic tenets of Marxism with China’s specific realities and with China's fine traditional culture. The Resolution of the Sixth Plenary Session of the 19th CPC Central Committee and the Report to the 20th CPC National Congress reiterated these "Two Combinations." The most critical theoretical breakthrough of the "Two Combinations" lies in the "Second Combination." On June 2, 2023, at the Symposium on Cultural Inheritance and Development, General Secretary Xi Jinping pointed out: "The 'Second Combination' is another liberation of the mind [1], allowing us to fully utilize the precious resources of China's fine traditional culture within a broader cultural space to explore theoretical and institutional innovations oriented toward the future." He emphasized that Chinese culture has a long history and Chinese civilization is extensive and profound. Only by comprehensively and deeply understanding the history of Chinese civilization can we more effectively promote the creative transformation and innovative development of China's fine traditional culture, more vigorously advance the building of a socialist culture with Chinese characteristics, and build a modern civilization for the Chinese nation. To study and implement the spirit of this important speech, the editorial department of Science and Atheism organized a special symposium on the "'Second Combination' and Atheism" on July 9. Among the participants, Professor Li Shen, a member of the Academic Advisory Committee of the Center for Science and Atheism Studies at the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences (CASS), delivered a speech titled "Chinese Traditional Culture and Atheism." The main contents are as follows.
The roots of Chinese culture can be traced back to the legendary eras of the Yan and Yellow Emperors [2]. During this legendary period, a belief in Sovereigns (shangdi) and the Mandate of Heaven (tianming) [3] took shape—a lineage that the Chinese nation would follow thereafter—and a series of experiences in governance and administration, along with related knowledge of human society and the natural world, was accumulated.
During the Shang and Zhou dynasties, beliefs in the Mandate of Heaven and Sovereigns became consolidated, and various forms of knowledge developed further. The ancient experiences of governance and administration, innovated and developed by thinkers such as the Duke of Zhou, Confucius, and Laozi, formed a relatively complete system of rites and principles of state governance. From this point on, national unity and political stability became the highest political and social goals pursued by the ancient Chinese.
The establishment of the Qin Dynasty achieved factual unity for China on a material level. The Han Dynasty chose to "exclusively honor Confucianism" [4], achieving unity for China on an ideological level. From then on, Confucianism became the orthodox guiding ideology of the ancient Chinese state. Regimes might change, and the figures or ethnic origins of those in power might shift, but the exclusive honoring of Confucianism remained constant. Confucianism fulfilled its efforts and responsibilities in maintaining the stability of ancient Chinese rule and the continuity and unity of the traditional culture of the Chinese nation. Confucius, the founder of Confucianism, also became the most important sage in ancient China and an iconic symbol of traditional Chinese culture. In harmony with territorial and cultural unity, national unity was regarded as normal and something people yearned for; the division of the country was regarded as abnormal. During periods of national division, the hope for a return to unity was a common psychological trait of the Chinese nation and a precious legacy of traditional culture. National unity guaranteed cultural unity and ensured the continuity of that unified culture, making Chinese traditional culture the only uninterrupted culture in five thousand years.
Confucius "followed the traditions of Yao and Shun as his ancestors and modeled himself after [Kings] Wen and Wu" [5], claiming to be "a transmitter and not a creator." In reality, while inheriting the governance experiences of ancient sages, Confucius also studied the various problems faced by the ancient state by seeking truth from facts, subsequently proposing a series of new concepts such as "governing the state through virtue." The Han Dynasty's exclusive honoring of Confucianism implemented the principles of "benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom, and trustworthiness" (ren yi li zhi xin), established by Confucian scholars starting from Confucius, into national politics, creating a ritual system centered on "filial piety." This system played an important role in national stability, but it also brought about many phenomena of hypocrisy and pretense. Consequently, during the Wei and Jin dynasties, Wang Bi and others proposed that the "Nothingness" (wu) [6], which is invisible and intangible behind the tangible rites, was more important. Because Wang Bi and others could not articulate the specific content of that "Nothingness," those who worshipped it acted as they pleased and ignored regulations. By the Tang Dynasty, with Kong Yingda’s Correct Meaning of the Five Classics at the core, it was proposed that the tangible "Being" (you) and the intangible "Nothingness" (wu) were equally important. At the end of the Tang Dynasty, Han Yu and others promoted The Great Learning, The Doctrine of the Mean, and Mencius, foreshadowing that Confucianism would enter a new era. By the Song Dynasty, represented by the brothers Cheng [Hao and Yi] and Zhu Xi, The Analects, Mencius, The Great Learning, and The Doctrine of the Mean were compiled into the Four Books. They made individual inner self-cultivation the prerequisite for observing Confucian regulations and pointed out that the "Nothingness" behind the tangible "Being" was "Principle" (li) or "Heavenly Principle" (tianli). Principle is order; observing social order is human nature. Inner self-cultivation consists of realizing this Heavenly Principle and returning to one's own nature. This Neo-Confucianism turned the observance of social order into a conscious act of the human heart, thereby further ensuring the stability of the social order.
While Confucianism was constantly innovating and developing its own theories, Buddhism and Taoism were also updating their doctrines. Within Buddhism, the Chan (Zen) sect emerged, holding that Buddhas, Bodhisattvas, demons, and ghosts are but a single thought in the mind; as long as one understands that their nature is pure, they themselves are the Buddha. In the face of repeated failures in the movement to achieve physical immortality, Taoism abandoned the idea of physical ascension and even advocated that those with high moral character in reality are the immortals.
However, as Shusun Tong, honored as the "Doyen of Han Confucianism," said: "Confucian scholars are difficult to use for aggressive acquisition, but can be used to preserve what has been achieved." In terms of maintaining national stability, Confucianism made outstanding contributions. Confucianism does not advocate the invasion of others, but it also found it difficult to cope when facing external invasions. Especially in modern times, when encountering the "strong ships and sharp cannons" of imperialist powers, Confucianism lacked the ability to respond. Thus, at the final moment, the Qing Dynasty, which exclusively honored Confucianism, had to abolish its dominant status itself. This was followed by the Xinhai Revolution [7] and later the founding of the People's Republic of China, which gave China a new life and also gave traditional Chinese culture a new life.
The national belief of ancient China, which exclusively honored Confucianism, was headed by a system of deities led by the Sovereign (shangdi), who were in principle the guardian gods of the state. In the eyes of those who believed in these deities, one more deity meant one more layer of protection for the state, just like having one more elite soldier or powerful general. Therefore, ancient China could call the foreign Buddha and the native Laozi and Confucius "sages." Other ancient countries were actually the same. It was only later that world religions centered on individual salvation, represented especially by Christianity, came to regard the deities of other nations as "idolatry" that must be eliminated, which changed the spirit of tolerance and peace among nations believing in world religions. In modern times, the addition of the expansionist demands of capitalism has caused the culture of tolerance and peace in these countries to almost vanish.
Ancient Chinese states, from monarchs to the common people, believed in gods. This is a historical fact. It is also a fact that Confucius was worshipped and offered sacrifices by ancient states as a public national god, with a status as high as the gods of the Land and Grain (sheji) [8]. However, at least starting from Confucius, thinkers in every generation have continuously corrected and discarded low-level, crude sorcery and excessive, unrestrained superstitions regarding ghosts and gods. This constitutes the long-standing tradition of atheism in our traditional culture.
Society at the time of Confucius generally believed that extraordinary celestial phenomena such as comets and meteorites were the "Way of Heaven" (tiandao) reflecting the will of Heaven, but Confucius did not discuss issues related to the so-called Way of Heaven. Confucius and his disciples also did not believe in the anthropomorphic ghosts and gods spoken of by the Mohists, and were thus called "atheists." Xunzi further pointed out that those extraordinary celestial phenomena were merely uncommon occurrences, not expressions of the will of Heaven. By the Han Dynasty, the state enacted laws identifying sympathetic magic as "sorcery and hexes" (wugu) [9] that harmed society, and proposed the concept of "licentious sacrifices" (yinsi). From then on, abolishing and striking against sorcery and licentious sacrifices—that is, sacrifices exceeding state regulations—became the regular business of ancient atheists.
In the Han Dynasty, Dong Zhongshu proposed the new theological concept of "resonance between Heaven and humanity" (tianren ganying), transforming the Heaven of the past, which was fickle and issued rewards and punishments arbitrarily, into a Heaven that decided rewards and punishments based on the good or evil of human behavior. This was a progressive step in the ancient theology of Confucianism. Wang Chu further examined those events of resonance between Heaven and humanity identified by Dong Zhongshu and found them to be nothing more than accidental coincidences, thereby denying the concept of resonance and proposing the concept of "the Way of Heaven is natural" (tiandao ziran). This was a major achievement of atheistic thought in the Han Dynasty. Wang Chu also denied that humans become ghosts after death, arguing that a soul detached from a living physical body has no cognitive function.
During the Wei, Jin, and Northern and Southern Dynasties, Confucian scholars opposed the Buddhist doctrine of karmic retribution and reincarnation. Fan Zhen, in particular, likened the relationship between spirit and body to that of sharpness and a blade, arguing that after a person dies, there can be no ghost, just as sharpness cannot exist once the blade is gone. In the Tang Dynasty, Han Yu resolutely opposed the emperor's welcoming and worshipping of a Buddha bone relic, nearly losing his life for it. Liu Zongyuan criticized the concept of "auspicious omens" promoted by the doctrine of resonance between Heaven and humanity, arguing that such talk was similar to that of "licentious shamans and blind chroniclers." Along with Liu Yuxi, he even denied the function of Heaven in rewarding good and punishing evil.
By the Song Dynasty, Ouyang Xiu wrote history by recording only abnormal celestial phenomena and disasters, no longer recording the so-called resonance relationship between these events and human affairs, thereby further denying the idea of resonance between Heaven and humanity. He even denounced the River Chart (Hetu) and Luo Writing (Luoshu) [10], which were considered gifts from Heaven at the time, as demonic and delusive fabrications by certain Confucian scholars. Cao Duan of the Ming Dynasty not only resolutely opposed licentious sacrifices by the masses but also vigorously criticized the burgeoning Feng Shui superstitions of the time. By the Qing Dynasty, Xiong Bolong continued the work of Wang Chu, targeting newly added licentious sacrifices of later generations, such as the worship of the god Zitong [11].
These atheistic ideas in Chinese history constitute a sequence in the development of fine traditional culture and provide valuable material for our atheistic thought today. However, viewed as a whole, the dissemination of ancient Chinese atheistic thought and the experiences of atheists were difficult. Atheistic thought, especially scientific and thorough atheistic thought, can only flourish in a socialist society guided by Marxism.
Online Editor: Tong Xin Source: Science and Atheism Public Account