Zhou Wei: The Development Path, Main Connotations, and Historical Evaluation of Yun Daiying’s Atheistic Thought
Atheism is a fundamental tenet of Marxism and was a powerful weapon used by Marx and Engels in their critique of religion. Marx noted, "against all heavenly and earthly gods," and that "there should be no god placed on a par with human self-consciousness." [1] As a high-level form of scientific atheism, Marxist atheism served as an ideological weapon for early Chinese Marxists to analyze and critique practical issues. Yun Daiying (1895–1931), hailed as the "beloved leader of Chinese youth," was a giant of early Communist Party of China (CPC) theory and a pioneer in propagating atheism. Utilizing Marxist atheism, he launched a comprehensive exposure and critique of religious theology and feudal superstition, continuously deepening the connotation of atheism and forming a relatively scientific and complete system of atheistic thought with his own distinct characteristics.
I. The Developmental Trajectory of Yun Daiying’s Atheistic Thought
Yun Daiying was a Chinese proletarian revolutionary and a representative figure in the dissemination of New Thought, New Culture, and atheism in modern China. Throughout his long-term theoretical creation and revolutionary practice, he creatively inherited and developed Marxist atheism in integration with China’s actual conditions, forming a series of viewpoints on atheism. The formation of Yun’s atheistic thought possessed a profound theoretical foundation and a sharp social background, undergoing a long-term, step-by-step process from emergence and development to ultimate maturity.
(1) Materialism and Gnosticism provided the theoretical foundation for Yun Daiying’s development of atheism
First, materialism was the theoretical basis for Yun’s development of atheism. The social transformation of modern China was exceptionally slow, yet the metabolism of ideas was incredibly rapid; various viewpoints and doctrines, such as materialism and idealism, took the stage one after another, clashing and resonating. Yun Daiying was a firm believer in materialism, holding that the world is material rather than conscious, and that ghosts and gods are false rather than real. In Materialist Realism (Wuzhi Shizailun), he pointed out: "Matter must simply be existence." [2] Especially after accepting Marxism, his materialist stance became firmer and his atheistic attitude more resolute. Yun vigorously critiqued idealism and theism, noting that "the words of the idealist scholars are inevitably excessive in sentiment over reality." [3] In his view, matter is an objective reality that does not change according to subjective perceptions such as sight or hearing; a blind person cannot see colors and a deaf person cannot hear sounds, but colors and sounds do not disappear because of this. Theists, meanwhile, are thoroughgoing idealists; their imaginary ghosts and gods are entirely products of the subjective spirit—characterized by "if one believes, it exists; if not, it does not"—and are thus idealistic rather than materialistic. Materialism was the theoretical core of Yun’s atheistic thought, prompting his firm conviction that ghosts and gods are products of consciousness rather than objective entities.
Second, gnosticism was the theoretical tool for Yun’s development of atheism. Yun believed that all things can be known by humans, and that the cognition of things follows a process of transformation from the unknown to the known. There are no things that humans cannot know; the "unknowable" is temporary rather than permanent, and the same applies to the understanding of the illusory nature of theism. Although the discourse of ghosts and gods is shrouded in mist and highly deceptive, the day will surely come when people can fully prove its falsehood and fraudulence. He pointed out: "That which is called 'inconceivable' is not presided over by God or forever beyond the scope of human cognition; rather, it is governed by scientific principles that have not yet been discovered, and is simply unknown to people today for the time being. It is by no means absolutely impossible for humans to wish to know all the things of the world." [4] With the continuous development of science, theistic theories will collapse of their own accord. He asserted: "Part of what was once thought to be divine can today be explained scientifically; how do we know that what is currently considered non-divine will not, in the future, be further explained by science, or perhaps be entirely explained by science?" [5] In Yun’s eyes, along with the vigorous development of science, human cognitive capacity will improve and its scope will expand. The mystery and "unknowability" of ghostly phenomena and paranormal events will be progressively broken by humanity through science. Atheism will be universally accepted and widely recognized, and theism will be thoroughly eradicated. Gnosticism helped Yun profoundly dissect the illusory essence of theism, pointing out that there are no supernatural or non-material forces in the world, and that gods and monsters simply cannot exist.
(2) The prevalence of feudal superstition prompted Yun Daiying’s deep reflection on atheism
China during the late Qing and Republican periods was beset by both internal troubles and external threats; internally, there were the divisive wars of the warlords, and externally, the incursions of imperialism, while the state’s ruling apparatus grew increasingly corrupt. Consequently, waves of "foul mud and dirty water" rose in the intellectual sphere; "for a time, various circles of society suddenly began talking at length about ghosts, gods, and spiritual cultivation." [6] Domestic feudal landlords, reactionary warlords, and foreign colonialist and imperialist forces took the opportunity to use religious theology to paralyze the masses. They attempted to use corrupt feudal concepts and superstitions of ghosts and gods to bewitch the people's minds to maintain their reactionary rule or extract maximum interests. This led to a resurgence of diverse religious forces, which wantonly spread religious theism. People lacking scientific knowledge were easily misled by theism, mistakenly believing in the existence of God, immortals, and demons. This caused the ideology of idol worship and feudal superstition to reach a fever pitch and spread everywhere; folk superstitions such as seeking divine help, kowtowing, burning incense, and divination became highly prevalent. As Yun Daiying said: "Today, whether in the marketplace or the countryside, any person you meet—whether a loyal gentleman or a peddler chasing profit—if pressed to speak of ghosts, can talk volubly based on what their ears have heard and eyes have seen." [7] At that time, the poison of theism was widespread, superstitious activities occurred everywhere, and the superstitious population was exceptionally large. Mao Zedong pointed out: "Of China's four hundred million people, almost three hundred and ninety million are superstitious." [8] Feudal superstitious concepts were deeply rooted and difficult to remove; there were those who believed in gods and ghosts, those who believed in God, those who believed in fatalism, and those who believed in "might makes right." Yun Daiying abhorred this phenomenon and engaged in continuous, deep reflection on atheism, hoping to break this chaos by critiquing religious theism and developing, disseminating, and popularizing atheistic thought.
(3) The formation of Yun Daiying’s atheistic thought underwent a gradual evolution from the superficial to the profound
The journey of Yun Daiying's atheistic thought from emergence to relative maturity did not happen overnight, but through a long and slow process. From his birth in 1895 to his joining the CPC in 1921, and then to his martyrdom in Nanjing in 1931 [9], his atheistic thought underwent a thorough and remarkable transformation during his short yet brilliant life.
In his youth, Yun Daiying was already an atheist. In May 1915, he published "New Atheism" (Xin Wushenlun) in the Guanghua Academic Journal, clearly stating: "I am, after all, an advocate for atheism." [10] However, at this stage, some of his atheistic thoughts were not yet fully comprehensive. On the one hand, Yun opposed the Christian world's concepts of the unknowable and God’s dominion over the world; he refused several invitations to join the church from missionaries and the YMCA. On the other hand, he admired the character and self-cultivation models of Christians as well as certain Christian concepts. In June 1918, he stated that "Christ, as a commoner, moved the world," [11] and in January 1921, he even went so far as to say he "worshiped Jesus’s personal character." [12] Thus, at this time, some of his atheistic viewpoints were not yet perfect or profound, even exhibiting the flaws of being a mixture of love and hate or being ambiguous.
After joining the CPC and becoming a Marxist in August 1921, Yun's atheistic views were continuously updated, gradually tending toward perfection and maturity. He began to explain the issue of religious theism from the standpoint of the nation and the people, deeply dissecting the roots and influence of the proliferation of religious theology from the perspective of political and economic systems. He no longer remained on the surface, discussing superstition for superstition's sake or religion for religion's sake. He argued that the root cause of religious theism's role in anesthetizing the people lay in the system of cruel exploitation and oppression; the wide spread of religious theism was closely related to the machinations of reactionary forces such as feudalism and imperialism. In April 1924, in "Christianity and Social Service," he pointed out: "What Christianity relies on is entirely the money sent by foreigners for proselytizing; the life of Christianity is tied to this money." [13] He achieved multiple transformations: from worshiping Jesus to looking at Jesus deeply; from admiring the character of Christians to critiquing the Christian idea of "saving the nation through character"; and from wanting to use Christianity to transform society to recognizing that Christianity was a tool for cultural aggression. He began to oppose religious education and advocate for the separation of religion from politics and education. In May 1926, he noted: "The more developed the schools run by foreigners are, the fewer people there will be who oppose imperialism, and the more our Chinese national spirit will suffer." [14] By this time, Yun Daiying had transformed into a Marxist atheist and began to progressively employ Marxist atheistic viewpoints to understand and analyze the issue of religious theism, leading to an elevation of his atheistic thought.
II. The Main Content of Yun Daiying’s Atheistic Thought
"God" is an illusory concept created by human society at a specific stage of development; "believing in gods and religion is often the result of the combined action of natural, social, and cognitive roots." [15] Marx pointed out: "The problem can only be solved by explaining the origin and development of religion based on the historical conditions under which it arose and achieved a dominant position." [16] Under the guidance of Marxist atheism, Yun Daiying conducted in-depth theoretical explorations of basic religious issues and the concept of freedom of religious belief, putting forward unique insights.
(1) Analyzing basic issues of religion
First, Yun Daiying believed that religion is essentially a reflection of human subjective consciousness—a modification and compensation at the conceptual level for reality. He pointed out that religion is an inevitable product of human social development: "Religious rituals, creeds, and myths are also products that naturally arise from human evolution." [17] Fetishism and polytheism are both forms of religion. in his view, religion is a conscious mapping by humans of external forces; God is nothing more than a fiction created by humans for the real world, lacking any scientific basis. He pointed out: "The so-called heavenly gods of religion are surely not the ontological reality of heavenly gods, but merely the product of the imagination of one or two people. Since those few individuals were not omniscient, the heavenly gods they imagined certainly cannot be omniscient." [18] In essence, religion is a simplified version of an idealized world or a spiritual refuge built by humans for themselves. Yun Daiying denied the existence of God and firmly believed that religious theism is superstitious and arbitrary; it is humans who create gods, not gods who create humans.
Second, Yun Daiying pointed out that the formation and evolution of religion have profound and complex historical and cultural roots. He summarized the causes of religion into six aspects. First, it arises from fear. When encountering natural disasters like earthquakes and tsunamis, humans are shocked by the divine power of the universe and surrender to unknowable divine authority, attempting to use the power of religious spirits to resist disasters "in the hope of escaping sin and calamity." Second, it arises from hope; people in times of hardship easily fantasize about receiving the protection of spirits. Third, it arises from misidentification. Humans are easily disturbed by metaphysics and mistakenly believe in the doctrine of ghosts and gods. Fourth, it arises from misunderstanding. When science is backward, "whenever something unusual is encountered... and an explanation cannot be found, it is then assumed there must be ghosts and gods." Fifth, it arises from aesthetic feeling. Wonderful natural phenomena like beautiful landscapes and the movement of the sun and moon "arouse in humans the thought of an omniscient, omnipotent, and omnipresent God." Sixth, it arises from imagination; people "contemplate a perfect ideal. They then name this ideal 'God'." [19] In his eyes, religion and theism are born together and are intertwined; religion has not always existed, but emerged only when human thinking reached a certain level. To expand on this, religion originated from the worship of nature or spirits in primitive society; it is a spiritual product of the heavy oppression of suffering and disaster when human productive forces and knowledge levels were extremely low.
Finally, Yun Daiying predicted that religion would eventually wither away as its function disappears. He did not entirely negate the value of religion, pointing out that it actually possesses a dual nature of positive and negative effects, though the negative effects are more prominent. He believed that religion, as an objective and long-standing social phenomenon, must possess certain functions for psychological solace and social integration; even folk sects like the White Lotus [20] and the Red Lantern [21] were no exception. "Using religion as a 'skillful means' (fangbian famen) naturally has its practical utility," [22] and "there is no lack of good people in the church," [23] with some believers having made great contributions to social development. However, the positive and negative roles of religion are relative rather than fixed; they are changeable and transferable. From a developmental perspective, the positive role of religion will gradually weaken until it disappears along with the evolution of human civilization. The disappearance of religion is inevitable; therefore, the disadvantages of retaining religion outweigh the benefits. He pointed out: "The utility of religion is so minute of the minute that it is truly insignificant." [24] With the increasing dilution of religious belief, the day will come when no one believes in religion; the decline and disappearance of religion is the general trend.
(2) Explaining the concept of freedom of religious belief
First, Yun Daiying believed that religious behavior has its own necessity and rationality, and that the reasons for religious belief are complex. He stated: "The human mind always needs something to cling to; it is unwilling to rest in a state of doubt... and thus easily falls into the ruts of religion. Naturally, within this process, there are the inducements of one's own emotions and the suggestive effects of social habits." [12] Religious belief is the result of the interaction of multiple factors, such as the followers' lack of rational thinking and the inducements of the social environment. Generally, those with weaker willpower are more prone to developing deity worship or religious faith: "The religious follower does not use their own mind, but rather follows the heavenly gods with it." [13] Consequently, they construct a distorted and fictional image of an omniscient and omnipotent heavenly god in their minds, subsequently attempting to obtain the protection of the deity or achieve communication with it through religious practice. Therefore, the more a place suffers from material and economic poverty or a lack of culture and education, the more religious faith flourishes, and the more religious followers there are.
Second, Yun Daiying advocated for a freedom of religious belief that has bottom lines, principles, and prerequisites. He pointed out that religion is universal, and that religious belief is a personal freedom that should be understood and accepted. "Religion is universal; one might almost say it is innate." [14] Even some scientists and philosophers find it difficult to leap over the fences of religion. He stated frankly: "We do not interfere with other people's freedom of religious belief." [15] In his eyes, whether to believe or not, and which religion to believe in, are personal choices that should not be forcefully interfered with. Religious groups should be given sufficient respect and should not be viewed with prejudice. However, freedom of religious belief is by no means without a bottom line or exempt from regulations; it can only be realized under normal state management and sound moral constraints, and religious activities must be carried out under the prerequisite of complying with laws and regulations. If one uses the name of freedom of belief to engage in illegal acts that harm society and others, those carrying out illegal religious activities must be severely sanctioned and resolutely suppressed. Yun Daiying believed that Christians were easily controlled by foreign missionaries and prone to being indoctrinated with Western culture and slave ideology; therefore, "regarding those with Christian faith, it is naturally best to persuade them to leave the religion." [16]
(3) Clarifying the distinction between religious faith and scientific faith
Yun Daiying argued that there is a clear and essential difference between religious faith and scientific faith, and they must not be equated. First, they differ in their degree of inclusiveness. He emphasized: "The influence of religious authority over people begins with the initiation of faith and resides habitually in devouted faith. Religion is faith; without faith, there is no religion." [17] In his view, religious faith is absolutely dogmatic and possesses a severe exclusivity, unable to accept any doubt or criticism. Scientific faith, however, is inclusive; it allows itself to be questioned and is willing to accept criticism. That is to say, scientific faith possesses a breadth of mind and a powerful mettle that religious faith cannot hope to attain.
Second, they differ in their scientific nature. Yun Daiying pointed out that religious faith and scientific faith have strict boundaries in their basic connotations. Scientific faith contains scientific truths and laws and is thus credible. In contrast, religious faith transfers fear and awe onto specific objects and places reliance upon imaginary deities; it is a subjective fabrication. He said: "Since every legendary miracle is being proven day by day to be a misunderstanding or a strained interpretation, at least a part of religion is untrustworthy—and indeed, a large part of it is untrustworthy." [18] Therefore, there is no necessity to believe in religious fictions that lack a basis in objective fact.
Third, they differ in their effects. Yun Daiying believed that scientific faith has an indisputable positive effect, capable of making people strive upward, making the timid brave, the weak strong, the discursive diligent, and the agitated tranquil. Religious faith does not function this way. In On Faith (论信仰), he pointed out: "To say that faith is indispensable is already not the highest principle. To further claim that because faith is indispensable, religion is therefore also indispensable, is an even more debatable proposition." [19] He believed that religious faith and scientific faith are nearly opposite and antithetical existences; the two must never be conflated. One must have scientific faith, but as for religious faith, it is better to have none than to have any.
(4) Analyzing the relationship between theism and scientific development
Early Chinese Marxists generally believed that theism and science were in conflict. As Li Dazhao pointed out: "We firmly believe that religion is something that hinders human progress." [20] Yun Daiying likewise held theism in contempt, regarding it as the antithesis of science.
First, Yun Daiying believed that theism is detrimental to scientific research. In February 1921, he pointed out in My Views on Religion (我的宗教观): "The worst flaw of believing in miracles is that it relaxes and obstructs the progress of scientific research." [21] He argued that science appeals to reason and is rooted in objective realities such as empirical evidence, while theism appeals to emotion and relies on vacuous fantasies. The two run in opposite directions and are incompatible in their essence and purpose. "Religion is something that absolutely cannot exist within the world of science." [22] The imprisonment and humiliation of Copernicus and Galileo by Christianity, and the obstruction of the spread of Darwinian theory, are irrefutable ironclad evidence of theism hindering scientific progress. Even if some scientists believe in God or religion, superstition in theism will ultimately become an obstacle to scientific research.
Second, Yun Daiying pointed out that theism is unhelpful for rational thinking. Theists superstitiously believe that the world was created by an omnipotent deity who rules over all things and governs the operation of all natural and social laws. He pointed out: "If people truly believe it [the deity] is an objective reality, it will inevitably obstruct the progress of our intellect." [23] In his view, once one provides superstitious belief to theist accounts of God creating man and the world, one easily loses the motivation for deep rational reflection, which in turn leads to rigid thinking and stagnant ideas. "If it is already confirmed that it was made by God, what else is there to research?" [24] He asserted that theism's use of "various deities as explanations truly obstructs human evolution." [25] Therefore, scientific workers should be thorough atheists and must not allow superstitious belief in God or ghosts and spirits to affect the degree of their rational thinking or the depth of their reflection on problems.
(5) Proposing methods for dealing with religious theism
Engels pointed out: "Under the advance of science... the endless domains of nature are all conquered by science, leaving no foothold for the Creator." [26] Based on reality, Yun Daiying proposed correct methods for dealing with religious theism, continuously promoting the dissemination and development of atheism and forcefully advancing the eradication of feudal superstition.
First, guiding religion to adapt to social development. The rise and prosperity of religion have undergone a long process, and its demise will also be a protracted one. As Marx said: "The religious reflex of the real world can, in any case, only then finally vanish, when the practical relations of everyday life offer to man none but perfectly intelligible and reasonable relations with regard to his fellowmen and to Nature." [27] Yun Daiying believed that although the demise of religion possesses objective historical necessity, it will by no means be as rapid as a violent storm; religion will continue to exist and even develop for a long time. Therefore, only by actively guiding religion to adapt to social development, effectively bringing into play its positive roles and curbing its negative roles, can we seek advantages and avoid disadvantages to promote its healthy development. To begin with, guide Western religions to achieve independence and break away from the control of imperialism. He stated frankly: "Regarding the independence movement of the churches, rather than saying we oppose it, it is better to say we advocate and support it." [28] He believed that Western religions were introduced on a large scale during the Great Powers' invasion of China and carried a heavy colonial color, making them easily manipulated by imperialism and reduced to appendages of Western missions and boards. Therefore, it is necessary to carry out a church independence movement and implement a religious policy of self-governance, self-preaching, and self-support. Yun Daiying particularly supported the independence movement of Christianity, stating that "if Christianity can avoid having a relationship with imperialism... there is no need to specifically reject it." [29] It is necessary to enable Christian churches and mission schools to achieve political, economic, and religious independence—just like Buddhism, Taoism, and Islam—and to cast off the labels of "foreign religion" or "eating religion" (relying on the church for a livelihood). Furthermore, guide religious followers to treat religion rationally. In his view, whether one believes in religion is closely related to the level of one's knowledge; shallow insight, barren thought, and spiritual emptiness are important reasons why the Chinese masses believe in religion. He said: "Those without knowledge or with simple knowledge, as their knowledge is insufficient to recognize morality, then use false beliefs or even religion to support it." [30] In other words, only people with wisdom and thought can consciously fulfill moral obligations and thereby avoid falling into the religious quagmire. Thus, it is necessary to "enlighten them with education to make them wise, and train them so that their love becomes more refined, possessing wisdom to guide their behavior." [31] This would lead followers to believe in religion rationally and put an end to excessive religious fanaticism or blind worship of deities. In short, by guiding Western religions toward independence and guiding followers toward a rational treatment of religion, a healthy and harmonious religious atmosphere is created, effectively promoting the coordination and adaptation of religion to social development.
Second, carrying out atheist propaganda and education. In modern China, where the study of gods and ghosts was prevalent, "evil winds" of rumors were everywhere, and people's hearts were uneasy, atheist propaganda and education possessed great practical value for opposing religious theology, breaking down religious superstition, and stabilizing society and the people's minds. Yun Daiying firmly believed that there are no gods or monsters in the world, that theism is an absurd and groundless talk, and that the replacement of theism by atheism is an inevitable trend of historical development. He pointed out: "All scholars in the world with even a bit of thought wish to advocate atheism... while those things that the people of the world are startled into thinking of as gods are all fabrications created out of thin air." [32] He vigorously refuted the false arguments of theists and advocated for strengthening atheist propaganda and education to promote the wide dissemination of atheist concepts and their deep integration into people's hearts. Through the publication of a series of articles and speeches criticizing and opposing religious theism, he profoundly analyzed the reasons for the emergence of theism, exposed its false essence and serious harms, and powerfully criticized idealistic theories of deities and ghosts, continuously deepening and expanding the work of atheist propaganda and education. In his view, only by actively propagating atheism and comprehensively awakening, stimulating, and shaping the masses' atheist concepts—so that even a three-foot-tall child knows there are no gods in the world—can the social soil in which theism breeds be completely cleared, achieving the goal of gradually eliminating heterodox talk of ghosts and gods and breaking the shackles of divine power.
Third, disseminating and popularizing scientific knowledge. The dissemination and popularization of scientific knowledge is an effective way to resist religious theism. As Engels pointed out: "The history of science is the history of the gradual clearing away of this stupidity." [33] Facing the situation in modern times where theistic theories and religious concepts were spreading and harming the masses, intellectuals like Yun Daiying launched an atheist movement, regarding the popularization of scientific truth as an important means of breaking superstition. He believed that not understanding science was the main reason for the superstitious belief in ghosts and gods; as long as the dissemination and popularization of scientific knowledge are strengthened and eerie phenomena are explained clearly with science, the interference of theism can be effectively avoided. He pointed out: "In the past, when we suddenly saw lightning strike someone, we thought a god was directing it. Today, those who have slightly studied physics all clearly understand that there is no god. In the past, when we suddenly saw a solar or lunar eclipse, we also thought a god was directing it; today, those who have slightly studied astronomy also clearly understand that there are no gods." [34] In his view, the judgment that there are gods and ghosts will be defeated by science; all so-called ghost and god phenomena can be solved by science in the future, and the correctness of atheism will eventually be verified. He said: "Having learned a bit about the evolution of the universe, we naturally cannot believe the religious legends of the creation of the world; having learned a bit about biological evolution, we naturally cannot believe the religious legends of the creation of humanity." [35] Therefore, he advocated for the wide dissemination and popularization of scientific knowledge among the people, mobilizing the masses to actively learn, speak of, and believe in science, and to arm their minds with science to oppose religious superstition. He led by example, disseminating scientific concepts through writing articles, founding magazines, and teaching courses, popularizing scientific knowledge in physics, chemistry, and biology, and introducing the theoretical achievements of scientists such as Newton, Darwin, and Einstein, guiding people to establish scientific thinking and oppose superstitious blind following.
Fourth, breaking through the shackles of feudal superstitious thought. Feudal superstitious thought has for thousands of years corroded people's souls and corrupted their will. Yun Daiying pointed out: "Social customs transform people, and even the virtuous cannot escape." [36] In his view, feudal superstitious thought is deep-rooted and its harm is particularly severe; once one falls into the ruts of feudal superstitious thought, one will be coerced and unable to extricate oneself, becoming increasingly superstitious and paranoid. The degree to which the Chinese people have been persecuted by feudal superstitious thought has reached an unsurpassable level. Just as he proposed that "without breaking the current social economic system, women will never be able to reach a position of independence and freedom," [37] it is difficult to completely sweep away feudal superstitious thought without achieving a transformation of the social system. Therefore, he advocated, on one hand, for the development of the New Culture, the dissemination of new ideas, and the promotion of new morality to carry out a thorough movement for the liberation of thought and continuously discard feudal superstitious concepts; on the other hand, he advocated for the transformation of the political and economic systems to tear apart the protective charms of feudal superstitious thought. For in Yun Daiying's view, reactionary forces such as feudal warlords and imperialism were essentially of the same ilk as feudal superstition; their reactionary rule was the root cause of the prevalence of feudal superstitious thought. Only by launching a revolution to overthrow them and breaking the decayed superstructure could the fetters of feudal superstitious thought be broken, effectively preventing its spread and allowing people to obtain spiritual liberation and freedom of thought.
III. Historical Evaluation of Yun Daiying’s Atheist Thought
Yun Daiying’s atheist thought expounded theoretical perspectives on atheism and proposed methods for dealing with religious theism. It effectively pulled back the veil of religious mysticism, promoted the dissemination and development of atheism, and greatly enriched Marxist atheist thought. However, due to the constraints of the era and historical background, his atheist thought inevitably possessed certain limitations, containing some immature points that remain open to further discussion.
(i) The Value of Yun Daiying’s Atheist Thought
First, at the theoretical level, it effectively pulled back the veil of religious mysticism and deepened people's theoretical understanding of religion. Because religion is shrouded in a thick veil of mystery and possesses powerful permeation and temptation, it is easy for individuals to become excessively obsessed with it, blindly placing their hopes in religious belief to obtain spiritual solace or supernatural power. In modern China specifically, as the national strength weakened, the land was fragmented, society was in upheaval, and people’s livelihoods were destitute, various forms of religious theism surged even more recklessly. Many religions spread their concepts frenetically by flaunting the banner of "science," which "set off a fever in intellectual circles for beautifying and reviving religion." [38] Some cult-like organizations used religion as a gimmick to wantonly spread the doctrine of the immortality of the soul and the existence of ghosts and gods, secretly organizing illegal religious activities. Additionally, many people dissatisfied with social reality used religious theology to numb themselves, causing the religious population to grow day by day and its composition to become increasingly complex. Yun Daiying not only published incisive insights into the essence, origins, functions, and disappearance of religion—directly exposing the hypocritical face of religious theology and revealing the complex processes of its formation, development, and evolution and its social roots—but also used Marxist atheism as an intellectual fulcrum to fundamentally negate the existence of God and spiritual beings. This greatly deepened the people's understanding of religion, effectively struck at the overbearing arrogance of stubborn religious forces, and provided an important theoretical reference for dispelling religious fanaticism and resolving religious issues.
Second, in practice, it effectively promoted the dissemination of scientific truth and checked the gestation and spread of theism. As an atheist, Yun Daiying repeatedly emphasized that ghosts and gods are subjective human fabrications. He opposed the culture of "ghosts and gods" and the wind of sorcery [39], constantly refuting the absurd claim that "there are deities three feet above one’s head," [40] sternly criticizing feudal ghost-and-god culture and the concept of spiritual worship, and profoundly revealing their true nature in shackling thought and distorting concepts. He stated: "When I observe past history, I would rather believe there are no gods." [41] On one hand, Yun vigorously promoted natural science knowledge such as cell theory, biological evolution, and the law of universal gravitation, introducing the working principles and advantages of machinery like elevators and steam engines to guide people in disseminating scientific knowledge, practicing scientific concepts, and establishing atheist views. On the other hand, by proposing methods for dealing with religious theism—such as guiding religion to adapt to social development, carrying out atheist propaganda and education, and breaking through the shackles of feudal superstitious thinking—he called on the people to actively struggle against concepts of ghosts and gods and superstitious phenomena, continuously breaking the spiritual fetters of theism. His series of ideological perspectives analyzing feudal superstition can be described as penetrating and incisive, profoundly dissecting the illusory nature and harmfulness of feudal superstition, and effectively stripping away the false veil covering theism. This allowed people to see clearly the ugly face of theism in poisoning and deluding the people, thereby playing an important role in leading social trends, popularizing scientific truth, and breaking feudal superstitious thinking, pointing out the practical direction and providing practical guidance for curbing the birth and spread of theism.
Third, ideologically, it promoted the development of atheism and enriched Marxist atheist doctrine. After the May Fourth Movement [42], various social trends such as socialism, New Village-ism [43], and liberalism arrived one after another and circulated widely in Chinese intellectual circles. Yun Daiying chose to believe in socialism and firmly supported and believed in Marxist atheism. In 1920, he pointed out in On Socialism: "The future of the world... should belong to socialism of co-existence and mutual aid." [44] Yun Daiying not only actively promoted and introduced the theoretical views of Marxist atheism, accelerating its dissemination and popularization, but also continuously studied the ideological essence of Marxist atheism. He actively applied Marxist atheism to explain issues related to Chinese religious theology and feudal superstition, forming an atheist thought with distinct characteristics and a clear focus based on national conditions. By analyzing the fundamental questions of religion, explaining the concept of freedom of religious belief, clarifying the distinction between religious belief and scientific belief, and evaluating the relationship between theism and scientific development, he effectively promoted the development of atheism, advanced the Sinicization of Marxist atheism, greatly enriched Marxist atheist thought, and significantly enhanced the influence of Marxist atheist doctrine at that time.
(ii) The Limitations of Yun Daiying’s Atheist Thought
First, the development process of Yun Daiying’s atheist thought lacked theoretical consistency and integration.
In modern China, suffering under the iron heel of Western powers and facing the danger of national extinction, advanced intellectuals introduced various Western doctrines to seek a path to save the nation, leading to a period where "the mud was mixed with the sand" in the intellectual field. To a certain extent, he was negatively influenced by empiricism, positivism, and Kantian idealism; he did not completely absorb and digest Marxist atheism. His understanding of atheism lacked consistency and integration, resulting in atheist views that were inconsistent or even self-contradictory. On one hand, he declared his advocacy for and belief in atheism; on the other hand, he stated that "the existence or non-existence of heavenly gods is certainly not something a person of shallow knowledge dares to speak of rashly." [45] It is not difficult to see that he may have harbored subjective fantasies about theism, leaving room for maneuver during his critiques, and his defense of atheism still needed strengthening. This led to atheist views that were not only evasive and sophistic at times but also mixed with idealistic elements such as "Heaven" (tian) and "the Way" (dao). As he said: "Only a person who illuminates reason [46] knows that the world has gods; and only a person who illuminates reason knows the world has no gods." [47] "The Way is the Way, and gods are gods; if a god conforms to the Way, I believe in the Way and I also believe in the god. If a god departs from the Way, I believe in the Way and I do not believe in the god." [48] This reflects from the side that Yun Daiying was never able to completely detach himself from the influence of traditional thoughts such as Taoism and Confucianism when understanding atheist issues. Although he strove to use Marxist atheism to explain themes of religious theism, he sometimes found it difficult to jump out of the preset frameworks of traditional Taoist and Confucian thought, and even more difficult to properly integrate traditional thought with Marxist atheism to analyze religious theism. This resulted in flaws and contradictions within his atheist thought.
Second, Yun’s view of Christianity was insufficiently rational and dialectical.
Yun Daiying held metaphysical judgments regarding Western religions, particularly Christianity, and lacked a comprehensive and fair understanding, which prevented his atheist theoretical system from being purely mature. Although during the colonial expansion of the powers, "religion often served as a tool of 'cultural aggression,'" [49] playing a highly ignoble role in serving capitalist colonial expansion, this does not mean one should totally negate or even harbor hatred toward Christianity and its believers. He repeatedly emphasized that Christianity was a tool for imperialism to invade China and soften the Chinese people; that Christianity and the foreign powers were "snakes and rats in the same hole" acting in collusion; that Chinese Christians relied on foreigners to get promoted and get rich; and that foreigners relied on Christians to seize China’s rights. In December 1923, in Why Do We Oppose Christianity?, he stated bluntly: "Each additional Christian is one more 'foreign slave' (yangnu)." [50] In May 1926, during a speech at Lingnan University, he pointed out: "Christians have prayed for over two thousand years, but we don't see the world prayed into a better state; instead, they have prayed out all these imperialists and warlords." [51] To be sure, his understanding of Christianity was a critique based on objective reality with a certain factual basis, but it cannot be denied that it carried emotional, absolute, and radical evaluations triggered by nationalist grief and indignation. To a certain extent, he demonized Christianity, amplified its dark side, and even classified Chinese Christians as enemies without distinction, one-sidedly shifting the contradiction between the Chinese nation and imperialism toward Christianity and its believers. Clearly, he understood the issue of Christianity more within a revolutionary context, even attributing the reason for opposing Christianity to its lack of revolutionary character and its consequent inability to save China from its predicament at the time. All of this was somewhat biased.
IV. Conclusion
Yun Daiying was a famous early revolutionary leader of the Communist Party of China and a pioneer in the development of atheism in modern China. He systematically expounded innovative atheist views, provided a theoretical reference for the development of atheism, pointed out the practical direction for dispelling superstition and disenchanting religion, effectively promoted the deepening and expansion of Chinese atheism, and vigorously advanced the Sinicization of Marxist atheist thought. Engels pointed out: "The theoretical thinking of every age... is a historical product." [52] Limited by the era, history, and various other reasons, Yun Daiying’s atheist thought could hardly be perfect; there were some flaws and regrets. However, people today cannot scrutinize or demand too much of him from a modern perspective. His atheist thought already contained many profound insights that transcended that era and remain instructional today. Deeply understanding the development, main connotations, and accurately judging the value and limitations of Yun Daiying’s atheist thought is not only beneficial for the research and development of Marxist atheist thought today but can also provide a certain reference for the handling of religious issues and the dispelling of superstition.