Liu Shulin: A New Display of the Charm of Chinese Civilization in the New Era and a New Realm of Research on the "Two Combinations"
Xi Jinping pointed out in the report to the 20th National Congress of the Communist Party of China (CPC): "The Chinese Communists have come to realize deeply that only by integrating the basic tenets of Marxism with China's specific realities and with its fine traditional culture, and only by persisting in the application of dialectical materialism and historical materialism, can we provide correct answers to the major questions posed by the times and practice, and consistently maintain the vigorous vitality and robust strength of Marxism." The report of the 20th National Congress presented us with the new mission of the "Two Integrations" for the Sinicization of Marxism in the New Era. Previously, at the ceremony marking the centenary of the founding of the CPC, Xi Jinping proposed the epochal proposition of the "Two Integrations." Simultaneously, the Resolution of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China on the Major Achievements and Historical Experience of the Party over the Past Century emphasized: "The fine traditional culture of China is a prominent strength of the Chinese nation and the foundation upon which we stand firm amidst the surges of global culture; it must be inherited and promoted in light of new contemporary conditions." Therefore, deeply recognizing the new charm displayed by Chinese civilization in the New Era and summarizing the historical experience and laws of integrating the basic tenets of Marxism with China’s specific realities and its fine traditional culture is of immense theoretical and practical significance for advancing the Sinicization and modernization of Marxism.
I. The New Charm Displayed by Chinese Civilization in the New Era
Entering the New Era, the new charm displayed by Chinese civilization is primarily manifested in the following three aspects.
First, with the development of archaeological work and historical research in New China, the historical time and space of Chinese civilization have achieved new expansion, and the "five thousand years of history" has become verified history (xinshi [1]).
During the May Fourth Movement [2], Li Dazhao, one of the founders of the CPC, opened a new era of Chinese Marxist historical research. Over seventy years of historical research and new archaeological progress in New China have not only broken through the theory of "the Western origin of Chinese culture" but have also formed a consensus that Chinese cultural morphology has "diverse origins, a Central Plains core, and an integrated structure." In particular, the three archaeological excavations of the Yin Ruins (Yinxu) [3] in the 20th century yielded 150,000 pieces of oracle bones, a vast number of jade and bronze wares, and over 4,000 individual Chinese characters conforming to the "six principles of structure" (liushu structure [4]). These findings recreated Chinese history from 3,300 years ago, verified the contents of Sima Qian’s "Annals of Yin" in the Records of the Grand Historian (Shiji), and confirmed that the social formation of the Shang Dynasty was a slave society.
Since the new period [5], the "Xia-Shang-Zhou Chronology Project" [6] concentrated forces from various fields to tackle key problems, and "a general consensus has been reached on the chronology of the early period of Chinese civilization: the date of the Xia Dynasty is 2070 BC; this is a conclusion reached on the basis of scientific research."
Archaeological discoveries and historical research continue to make new progress. In 2002, Li Xueqin of Tsinghua University discovered the inscription on the "Bin Gong Xu" (Bin Gong Xu [7]) at the Poly Art Museum in Beijing, proving that the documents in the "Preface to the Book of Documents" (Shangshu Xu) are based on historical facts. In the former lands of the State of Youxiong, where Yellow Emperor (Huangdi) is recorded in historical documents to have resided, the Xinzhai site in Xinmi and surrounding ruins were discovered, which also coincide with relevant records of the Yellow Emperor era in historical chronicles.
The spatial and temporal reaches of Chinese civilization are constantly expanding, and its charm awaits further promotion. This developmental thread is also reflected in the speeches of successive Party and state leaders. In October 1938, at the Sixth Plenary Session of the Sixth CPC Central Committee, Mao Zedong's formulation regarding Chinese history was: "From Confucius to Sun Yat-sen, we should summarize it and inherit this precious legacy." With the excavation of the Yin Ruins in Anyang, Henan, and the discovery of a large number of oracle bone inscriptions, Mao Zedong’s formulation of Chinese history saw new progress when he presided over a meeting of the Political Bureau of the CPC Central Committee on May 25, 1973: "The history of the period from the tortoise shells [8] to the Communist Party should be summarized." On May 27, 2022, when discussing Chinese history at a study session of the Political Bureau, Xi Jinping emphasized: "Through the continuous efforts of several generations of scholars, research results from major projects such as the Project to Trace the Origins of Chinese Civilization have substantiated our country's million-year history of humanity, ten thousand years of cultural history, and over five thousand years of history of civilization." these words not only record the rapid pace of progress in the study of Chinese civilization over the past hundred years but also clearly prove that the historical time and space of Chinese civilization are becoming broader and its content richer.
Second, the fine traditional culture of China demonstrates prominent advantages for development, and its 5,000-year "uninterrupted" continuity is honored as the only such instance among the world's ancient civilizations.
Chinese civilization is the only civilization among the world's ancient civilizations to have survived without interruption, possessing the prominent characteristic of developmental continuity. "Among the world's earliest and independent ancient civilizations, besides China, there were also ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, and ancient India; however, these civilizations, including those of Greece and Rome, were later interrupted. Only Chinese civilization has stretched on continuously for 5,000 years without breaking; this is unique in the world. Therefore, for the development of the entirety of human history, the origin of Chinese civilization holds special significance."
In the "General Introduction" volume of the 2015 edition of the monumental General History of China (Zhongguo Tongshi), edited by the historian Bai Shouyi, it is pointed out: "Compared with other ancient civilizations, the continuity of ancient Chinese civilization is quite striking. Chinese civilization emerged during the Chalcolithic and Bronze Ages. After the continuous development of the Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties, it entered the Iron Age during the Spring and Autumn period... After the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods, it continued to develop toward higher stages during the Qin and Han periods."
The reason Chinese civilization has such a long history and embodies a rare continuity is that it started early and developed rapidly during the stage of feudal civilization [9]. Its superstructure was well-integrated with its economic base, forming a complete set of harmoniously functioning institutions. The inertia of this institutional operation created continuity over a long era and produced a brilliant ancient civilization and culture. A relatively systematic institutional framework formed a relatively complete and solid social shell, therefore making it more capable of withstanding the shocks caused by internal and external conflicts. Although this situation was not conducive to moving toward a higher social formation, its developmental period was more stable and enduring than other types of institutional systems, in a sense exerting its own advantages. Xi Jinping pointed out: "China long occupied a leading position in the history of human development. Since ancient times, it gradually formed a complete set of state systems and governance systems including the court system, the system of commanderies and counties, the land system, the tax system, the imperial examination system, the supervisory system, and the military system, which were studied and imitated by neighboring countries and ethnic groups." These institutions are clearly important components of the brilliant Chinese civilization. Take the imperial examination system (keju) as an example: until the late Qing Dynasty, Britain—an advanced Western industrial nation—still remembered that its modern "civil service system" was the result of inspiration and guidance from the Chinese imperial examination system.
The cohesive force pursuing unity and unification bred by Chinese civilization is also rare in the world. The birthplaces of civilization, scattered like stars across the Chinese land, did not fall into fragmentation or go their own ways in history; rather, they possessed an eternal drive to pursue holistic integration, exerting a positive influence on surrounding ethnic groups. The British historian Arnold Toynbee believed that, as far as the Chinese are concerned, for thousands of years they have been more successful than any other nation in the world at uniting hundreds of millions of people politically and culturally. They have demonstrated this talent for political and cultural unification, possessing unparalleled successful experience.
Third, the powerful vitality of Chinese civilization comes from the "endogenous drive" of interaction, exchange, and integration between the center and the periphery of its civilizational structure.
Regarding the formation of Chinese civilization, the historian Chen Yuan once proposed a view of civilizational history characterized by "multi-source joint construction" and "preserving the essence while being inclusive." In fact, this is not only the posture of Sino-foreign cultural exchange but also the basic logic of the formation and development of Chinese civilization itself. In the process of its generation and development, through the occurrence of many origins, Chinese civilization gradually formed a relationship of interaction, exchange, and integration between the central civilization and various peripheral ethnic groups. During this process, an "endogenous drive" or "tension" between the carriers of interaction was generated. This endogenous drive and tension became the lifeblood of Chinese civilization's metabolism and its spirit of self-improvement.
According to historical records, this movement of interaction between the central regions of civilization and its peripheral regions began as early as the time of Emperor Shun. At that time, the migration of ethnic groups or tribes possessed the nature of official administrative planning: "Gonggong was banished to Youzhou, Huandou was exiled to Mount Chong, the Sanmiao were driven to Sanwei, and Gun was executed at Mount Yu" (Book of Documents: Canon of Shun). Sima Qian’s Records of the Grand Historian also records the historical lineage of China's Xiongnu migration: "The Xiongnu, their ancestor was a descendant of the Xia lineage, called Chunwei... they dwelt among the Northern Barbarians, moving according to their livestock" (Shiji: Biographies of the Xiongnu). It can be seen that the ancestors of the Xiongnu were also moved to the north by descendants of Yu the Great of the Xia.
This interaction and integration between the center and periphery, and among various ethnic groups, was also assisted by the management of administrative power. According to the "Tribute of Yu" in the Book of Documents: Yu the Great divided every 500 li extending outward from the capital into a management zone, each called a fu [10] (zone of submission). Extending outward from the capital as the center, they were divided into: the dianfu (royal domain), houfu (fiefs of lords), suifu (pacified zone), yaofu (zone of strategic alliance), and huangfu (the wild zone)—the "five fu." The people of each fu had different quantities and methods for fulfilling obligations such as taxes and corvée labor. This also formed a multi-layered interaction and exchange between the center and the periphery. Later, the geographical concept of "five fu" evolved into a criterion for clan relations and family seniority; those "within the five fu" were considered direct relatives, while those "outside the five fu" were not required to practice the rituals of the immediate family. In some parts of rural Shandong Province, even in the present era, families still use the "five fu" seniority as the boundary for performing rituals during the Spring Festival and major social activities.
This interaction and integration of center and periphery also took place among ethnic groups of different origins. The comprehensive report of the Project to Trace the Origins of Chinese Civilization pointed out: "As early as the Neolithic period, a pattern of 'unity in diversity' with the Central Plains as the core and including different types of class cultures had already formed on this land of China... From the beginning of Chinese civilization, frequent exchange, collision, and integration had already occurred among economic groups in different regions, with different cultural traditions, and different economic modes... Unification became the mainstream of the Chinese nation."
Geographical conditions, natural disasters, and Yellow River floods were also factors that prompted the interaction and integration of the civilizational center and periphery. Due to the advantages or disadvantages of geographical terrain, or the constant strikes of natural disasters and Yellow River floods, the capitals of various dynasties were constantly moving; the location of the civilizational center itself was unstable and in constant transition. Taking the Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties as examples: the Xia capital moved ten times, generally following the banks of the Yellow River from west to east; the Yin-Shang capital moved sixteen times, generally from the Zhi River in Hebei to Yan, Ji, and Yishui, passing through Shangqiu and Zoulu before gradually heading south and stopping at the Yin Ruins—they were known as the people of Yan, Bo, and Shanrong; the Zhou capital moved more than ten times, from Longyou to the foot of Mount Qi and then to Feng and Hao, after which they conquered Chong, built Luoyang, occupied the old dwellings of the Xia, followed the Jing and Wei rivers to the Yellow River, and then pushed eastward and campaigned to the north and south, forming a unification—they were known as the Rong and Di people of the northwest.
The warfare of the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods and the unification of the Qin Dynasty; the uprising of Chen Sheng and Wu Guang; the Chu-Han Contention between Liu Bang and Xiang Yu; the enlightened policies of Emperor Wu of Han to integrate various ethnic groups; the great integration during the Three Kingdoms and Jin periods; the move of the capital of the Xianbei-led Northern Wei from Datong to Luoyang and their subsequent Sinicization—these interactions and migrations caused a great integration and confluence of Chinese culture across the east, west, north, and south. This not only made the Han ethnicity a large "mixed-blood" nation but also resulted in different ethnic groups being present within one another (ni zhong you wo, wo zhong you ni [11]), with lifestyle habits forming a great confluence. From ancient times to the present, the concept and historical reality of "the Chinese nation as one family" (tianxia yijia) were formed in this way.
The "Introductory Volume" of the General History of China edited by Bai Shouyi summarizes three great migrations in the history of Chinese civilization: First, the interaction and contest between the central region and the northern Xiongnu during the Warring States, Qin, and Han periods; the Southern Xiongnu submitted to the Han, while the Northern Xiongnu were defeated and fled west beyond the Pamir Mountains (Congling), triggering the great migration of Germanic tribes in 4th-century Europe and the fall of the Western Roman Empire. Second, during the late Northern and Southern Dynasties and the Sui and Tang periods, after repeated wars with the Sui and Tang, the Turkic Khaganate collapsed; many Turks submitted to the Tang, while many others went west, spreading across the Pamirs and Central Asia. Third, at the beginning of the 13th century, amidst the confrontation between the Jin, Southern Song, and Western Xia, the Mongols conquered vast areas of Eurasia to become an unprecedentedly huge empire, exerting an immense influence on world history. These great migrations, interspersed with the smaller migrations of each dynasty, constituted the opportunities for the interaction and integration of various ethnic groups.
Emperor Taizong of Tang, Li Shimin, implemented an enlightened ethnic policy, achieving the effect of great national unity. He believed: "The barbarians (yidi) are also human; their feelings are no different from those of the Chinese. A ruler’s only concern should be that his virtue and benevolence do not reach them; there is no need to be suspicious of different kinds. If virtue and benevolence are pervasive, the four barbarian tribes can be made as one family; if suspicion is great, even one's own flesh and blood cannot avoid becoming enemies." "Since ancient times, all have valued the Chinese and looked down on the barbarians; I alone love them as one, so their tribes all rely on me as they would their parents." During Taizong's reign, domestic ethnic policies and foreign policies were highly successful, supporting the "Reign of Zhenguan" [12].
In 1227, before the death of Genghis Khan of the Yuan Dynasty [13], he entrusted his heirs to the care of his Chancellor, Yelü Chucai. The latter assisted Genghis Khan's successor, Ögedei Khan, in formulating rituals, establishing systems, emphasizing civil education, reinstating the imperial examinations, and appointing large numbers of Han officials in accordance with the traditions of Central Plains civilization. He prohibited the barbaric custom of massacring cities after victory; in Kaifeng alone, 1.47 million people were saved from the catastrophe of death, which subsequently became the established practice. By "using the Xia [civilization] to transform the Yi [barbarians]" [14], the foundation of civil governance was laid. Yelü Chucai served as Chancellor for thirty years; when he passed away, the common people mourned him as if they had lost their own parents [15]. This is another example of ethnic interaction and integration.
The Qing Dynasty developed rapidly after entering the passes [16]. It not only expanded and consolidated the northwest territories but also underwent a gradual process of Sinicization. Consequently, by the time of the Xinhai Revolution [17], once pigtails were cut off, it became difficult to find the social and lifestyle markers of the original Manchu people. In the late Qing period, although the dynasty presided over a time when modern Chinese civilization was on the brink of crisis, seen from another perspective—compared to the rapid decline and fall of the contemporary Ottoman Empire in the East and the Mughal Empire in India—the existence of the Qing Dynasty "basically maintained the territorial scope of the motherland. The existence of China as a unified major Eastern power created a massive obstacle to the invasion and expansion of Western colonizers." "Having experienced the frenzy of global colonial partitioning by imperialism in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the fact that China, as an ancient power, was able to survive was a setback for imperialist aggression and an inspiration for the struggles of the world's oppressed nations." Of course, during this period, it was primarily the masses who manifested the spirit of Chinese civilization in resisting aggression and imperialism. As Mao Zedong said, "The heroic struggle of the Chinese people, unyielding and redoubling their efforts for a hundred years, has made it impossible for imperialism to destroy China to this day, and it will never be able to destroy China."
Historical facts prove that the integration of the Chinese nation is of relatively high quality. Lao She was a Manchu of the Plain Red Banner in Beijing. The famous historians Bai Shouyi and Sha Jiansun were Hui. The Ningxia Nationalities Museum displays the deeds of famous Hui scholars, and Professors Bai Shouyi and Sha Jiansun are among them. Were it not for these specific introductions, the specific ethnic identities of these three professors would be difficult for the general public to discern.
Zhang Haiping pointed out: "In the course of our development, the many gradually moved toward the one. The cultures of various regions competed, collided, and merged with each other, ultimately forming Chinese civilization." Clearly, Zhang also identifies the fact that the competition, collision, and fusion of regional cultures generated an "endogenous momentum."
Xi Jinping summarized the law of "endogenous momentum" generated by this mode of interaction: "Since ancient times, the people of the Central Plains and the borderlands have come and gone in frequent interaction. Especially since the Qin Dynasty, there has been both the settlement of Han people in the borders and the inward migration of border peoples. Through several major ethnic fusions, the various ethnic groups have become part of one another, collectively developing the land beneath our feet." "As early as the Pre-Qin period, our country gradually formed an integrative pattern with the Yan-Huang Huaxia [18] as the cohesive core and the 'peoples of the five directions' sharing the world under heaven... Regardless of which ethnic group moved into the Central Plains, they took the unification of the world as their duty and regarded themselves as the orthodox heirs of Chinese culture." "The reason why all ethnic groups are united and integrated, and why diversity converges into a single entity, stems from the cultural inclusiveness, economic interdependence, and emotional closeness among all ethnic groups, and from the endogenous momentum of the Chinese nation's pursuit of unity." This is a comprehensive and profound generalization of the civilizational characteristics of the Chinese nation.
In the New Era, Chinese civilization has long since moved beyond the period of being obscured by the low ebbs of the modern era, beyond the difficult period of the early days of the New China, and even beyond the "remedial period" of economic development. Amidst the long-term decline and constant outbreaks of turmoil in the contemporary imperialist world, it maintains a calm and composed developmental advantage with an independent posture. The Resolution of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China on the Major Achievements and Historical Experience of the Party over the Past Century points out: "The continuous success of the Sinicization and modernization of Marxism has presented Marxism to the world with a brand-new image, and has caused the historical evolution and competition between the two ideologies and social systems of socialism and capitalism on a global scale to undergo a major shift in favor of socialism." Therefore, now is the golden age to promote and excavate the precious treasures and potential of fine traditional Chinese culture and to manifest its contemporary value.
II. The New Laws Governing the Manifestation and Development of Chinese Civilization Emerging from the Low Ebb of the Modern Era
Chinese civilization, which led the way for millennia, has radiated brilliant light, enlightening the thinking of its own people and others around the world. However, in the modern era, Chinese civilization underwent a period of being "covered in dust" and suffering humiliation. Accurately understanding this journey from humiliation to struggle and rise in the history of the Chinese nation involves not only basic views on the laws of modern historical development but also the recognition of and confidence in the realistic prospects and future direction of Chinese civilization. Scientifically understanding this period of tortuous development in modern Chinese history is of great significance.
First, correctly understanding the historical process of Chinese civilization from its modern obscuration to its struggle and rise.
In the history of the international communist movement and the history of socialism, a major and unavoidable research topic has emerged over the last 70-plus years: the victory of socialist revolutions first in countries that were relatively backward economically and culturally. From the perspective of this topic, the period of modern history in which Chinese civilization was obscured and languishing can be better explained through the broad historical rhythm of the development of Chinese civilization.
To recognize the world-historical status of Chinese civilization, one must first correctly understand the historical reasons for its modern obscuration. Why did a world civilization that led for so long fall step by step into the abyss of a colonial and semi-colonial state in the half-century after 1840? Why did the struggles and national salvation efforts of Chinese people with lofty ideals fail one after another during this period? This is the first question requiring a scientific answer. The second question is: Why, since the founding of the Communist Party of China in 1921, has the fate of the Chinese people and the Chinese nation undergone a fundamental change, ushering in a new stage of glorious struggle that has become a history moving toward the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation from October 1, 1949, to the present? Different answers to these two questions actually determine different understandings of the developmental laws of Chinese civilization.
Xi Jinping has provided scientific answers to these two fundamental questions regarding the modern development of Chinese civilization: "To save the nation from peril, the Chinese people rose in resistance, and people with lofty ideals campaigned and cried out. The Taiping Heavenly Kingdom Movement, the Hundred Days' Reform, the Yihetuan Movement, and the Xinhai Revolution followed one after another, and various national salvation plans were introduced in turn, but all ended in failure. China urgently needed new ideas to lead the national salvation movement and a new organization to coalesce revolutionary forces."
The obscuration of Chinese civilization and the failure of various struggles were mainly due to the following two reasons:
First, the national salvation movement lacked the guidance of new ideas. Prior to the October Revolution in Soviet Russia, faced with the capitalist world system and colonial aggression, Chinese civilization lacked a scientific ideological system to guide the masses in discerning the origins and development of aggressive forces. The then-dominant feudal ideology was already decayed and was no match for Western capitalist thought.
Second, in the face of aggression by Western powers, the Chinese nation lacked a core organization to consolidate all revolutionary forces for an anti-aggression struggle. Whether it was the Qing government or local warlords, not only were they unable to lead resistance against aggression, but they were also prone to colluding with colonialism to oppress the people. The Qing government was unable to organize any effective resistance movement against the invaders; the people of the entire country were in a state of "loose sand" in the face of the aggressors.
Following the answer to the first question, the answer to the second question arises. The October Revolution, the May Fourth Movement, the spread of Marxism-Leninism in China, the founding of the Communist Party of China, and the pioneering work of the Sinicization of Marxism compensated for the historical defects of Chinese civilization, activated its essential elements, and guided the Chinese revolution from victory to victory. Having discovered these two defects, the remedy for them was produced. With these two historical defects remedied, Chinese history underwent a great turning point. This turning point also manifested in two aspects:
First, under the guidance of Marxism-Leninism, the Chinese nation not only understood the origins and development of capitalism and colonialism but also understood that the demise of colonialism is inevitable and the victory of the people is certain, thereby gaining the confidence necessary for victory. The emergence of innovative results from the Sinicization of Marxism provided the Chinese people with a powerful ideological weapon to destroy the old world and strive for the new. Marxism-in-China guides the Chinese people from victory to victory.
Second, the founding and growth of the Communist Party of China, which combined Marxism with China’s specific realities and fine traditional Chinese culture, allowed it to become the backbone of the Chinese people in their struggle. Xi Jinping clearly pointed out: "For a hundred years, the Communist Party of China has united and led the Chinese people, with the undaunted spirit of 'our minds grow stronger for the martyrs' sacrifice, daring to make the sun and moon shine in new skies,' writing the most magnificent epic in the several-thousand-year history of the Chinese nation. The great path opened, the great cause created, and the great achievements attained in these hundred years will surely be recorded in the annals of the development of the Chinese nation and the annals of the development of human civilization."
The answers of Chinese Communists to these two fundamental questions both reflect on history and guide the future. "We must use history to reflect on reality and look to the future. From the hundred-year struggle of the Communist Party of China, we must see clearly why we were successful in the past and understand how we can continue to be successful in the future, so that on the new journey, we can more firmly and consciously remember our original aspiration and founding mission and create a better future." Observing modern Chinese history requires not only seeing the aspects of obscuration and humiliation but also, more importantly, seeing the aspects of struggle, victory, and glory. Only in this way can we more clearly recognize that the struggle between the modern Chinese people and imperialism was a war against aggression and a just war; only the Communist Party of China leading the people can save China, and only under the guidance of the innovative results of the Sinicization and modernization of Marxism can China be saved. This is the secret of how the Chinese nation traversed modern humiliation and obscuration, emerged from the low ebb, and moved toward its rise.
Second, adhering to the principle of "creative transformation and innovative development" of fine traditional Chinese culture to make the past serve the present, while rejecting restorationism and historical nihilism.
In recent decades, cultural restorationism once appeared in the field of traditional culture. Its nature is a reaction against the century-long cultural revolution, and more so, it is a form of formalism detached from the masses, which ultimately amounts to nothing more than the self-amusement of cultural restorationists. Cultural restorationists fail to see world trends and social progress, nor the general trend of historical development; they vainly attempt to replace the now-dominant socialist ideology with the feudal culture of the old society. Cultural restorationists fail to see the decayed side of traditional culture—its hierarchy and privilege—and forget that the decayed parts of traditional culture once brought China to the brink of national extinction. On the surface, cultural restorationists also wave the banner of promoting traditional culture, but what they seek to "promote" is not the fine traditional culture that holds progressive historical significance, but rather an attempt to replace the new socialist culture under the guidance of Marxism with the decayed parts of traditional culture. Evidence of this can be seen in the various movements in recent decades to restore Confucianism as a state religion, which have drawn resentment and criticism from the broad masses of the people.
In the ideological and cultural spheres, due to the influence of both domestic and international factors, trends of historical nihilism, national nihilism, and cultural nihilism have also appeared in recent decades. On the surface, these trends blindly negate fine traditional Chinese culture and Chinese civilization; in reality, they negate the new socialist culture from an extreme perspective. In modern social life, they do not advocate negating the decayed ideas of feudalism and capitalism, but rather "point at the mulberry to revile the locust tree" [19]—criticizing the ancestors of history to achieve the goal of negating contemporary socialist society. Some even directly describe the history of the revolution led by the Communist Party of China, the most profound social transformations, and the scientific ideas of great leaders as "a complete pitch-black mess" or a "Leftist" history, thereby negating them. In recent years, the historical nihilism advocated by some has reached the point of opposing the Party's leadership, opposing Marxism-Leninism, disparaging revolutionary leaders, and vilifying people's heroes and model workers of the new society, even slandering Marxism as "the greatest historical nihilism." It is inevitable that these viewpoints of historical nihilism have aroused widespread resentment and criticism among the masses.
Chinese civilization nurtures many cultural connotations of long-term value. In the New Era, a new mission for the current generation of scholars in the philosophy and social sciences is to integrate the basic tenets of Marxism with the excellent cultural achievements of Chinese civilization. This mission can only be successfully completed on the premise of excluding archaism and historical nihilism [20]. Only then can we develop and utilize the wealth of national culture accumulated throughout the history "from tortoise shells to the present" [21] to serve the national rejuvenation of the Chinese nation. Xi Jinping emphasized: "We must persist in making the past serve the present and drawing lessons from the past for today. We must persist in a discerning treatment and a critical inheritance [22], rather than valuing the ancient while belittling the modern or using the past to negate the present. We must strive to realize the creative transformation and innovative development of traditional culture, so that it integrates and connects with contemporary culture, jointly serving the contemporary task of educating the people through culture." By excavating and developing the excellent achievements of Chinese civilization with such a scientific attitude, we can "educate the people through culture," advance the cause of the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation, and ensure that the Sinicization and modernization of Marxism continue to advance along the right path.
Third, only Marxism-Leninism can activate the factors of Chinese civilization and guide the direction of contemporary social development.
Within the ideological treasury of Chinese civilization, there is an excellent cultural tradition of materialism starting from Xun Kuang [23], as well as the dialectical traditions represented by Laozi and Zhuangzi. However, because Confucianism, as the "orthodox ideology," long fettered the minds of the people, active components such as primitive materialism and dialectics could not guide or organize the Chinese people to find a way out for further social development. Once mired in the bog of semi-feudalism and semi-colonialism, these elements appeared powerless.
Before the arrival of the Marxist materialist conception of history, even advanced figures in modern times continued to revise or re-map the "Grand Union" [24] of Confucius or the primitive communism of Laozi's "small state with few people." The reason why our ancestors' ideal society was habitually sought by looking back at past history was precisely because they lacked the ideological weapon for forward exploration. Ever since the salvos of the October Revolution brought Marxism-Leninism to China, the Chinese people grasped the worldview and methodology of historical materialism. For the first time, they possessed the ability to project social development forward and grasp the great trends of history; only then did they acquire the ideals and convictions of scientific socialism and communism. After Communists led the people in mastering the truths of Marxism, and particularly after mastering the principle of Sinicizing Marxism, Chinese civilization gradually shook off its state of being covered in dust and subjected to humiliation, turning instead toward a victorious process of heroic struggle. Marxism-Leninism activated the vitality of Chinese civilization to constantly strive for self-improvement. Guided by the innovative fruits of Marxism's Sinicization, and through more than 70 years of extraordinary struggle in New China, the Chinese civilization of the New Era has actually stood once more at the starting point of leading development.
To correctly understand this historical positioning, we must resolve relevant ideological and theoretical issues.
First, we must recognize the historical inevitability of the emergence of actual socialist countries based on relatively backward economy and culture. In the Manifesto of the Communist Party and the first volume of Capital, Marx and Engels, through meticulous and detailed scientific research, proposed and maintained the thesis of the "Two Inevitabilities" [25]. The thesis of the "Two Absolute Nevers" [26] they proposed in 1859 is completely consistent with the "Two Inevitabilities"; both are elaborations on the principle that "man’s social existence determines his consciousness." The "Two Absolute Nevers" do not mean that people must wait until the contradiction between capitalist productive forces and relations of production develops to its extreme before they have the conditions to carry out a revolution. This is because the imbalance of capitalist development is absolute. If one waits for the "extreme" state to arrive, it would actually amount to canceling the historical initiative of the people and canceling the revolution. Based on his research into the capitalist world system, the "weakest link" in the imperialist chain, and the way war triggers revolution, Lenin proposed the theory that the socialist revolution could first triumph in a single country. Mao Zedong Thought, as an innovative fruit of the Sinicization of Marxism, further pointed out the path for the successful transition between China's New Democratic Revolution and the socialist revolution. By adopting the path of the rural areas encircling the cities for the violent revolution, it opened a victorious path with New Era characteristics for the liberation of people in colonial and semi-colonial countries.
Second, we must summarize the general and specific laws of the development of Chinese civilization with a broader perspective and more substantial historical facts. It is not difficult to see that in the development of world history along five social formations, there are universal basic laws: there is no precedent for the overall sequence of the five social formations being bypassed or reversed. But at the same time, it also reflects the particularity of contradiction: every time a country or region first enters a new social formation, it is often one that was relatively backward economically and culturally in the original social formation. Conversely, countries and regions where the original social formation and system were more developed or leading often lag behind in the process of entering the new social formation due to their own original leading inertia and the rigidity of their own social system's "shell." Most of the countries and regions that entered the feudal social formation earlier in the world were those where slavery was relatively backward; most of those that entered the capitalist social formation earlier were those where the feudal stage was relatively backward; similarly, most of those that entered the socialist social formation earlier were those where the capitalist stage was relatively backward. In this regard, no exceptions have yet been found. This interesting phenomenon has attracted the attention of more and more historians and political scientists. On this basis, it is expected that a more detailed map of the development of social formations can be drawn, supporting and enriching the principles and laws of historical materialism with more detailed historical facts.
Under the guidance of Marxist historical materialism, many of the older generation of historians discovered this phenomenon of historical development one after another and engaged in preliminary reflections on its laws. Lei Haizong [27], an expert in ancient world history, long ago noticed that China's development during the slave society stage was not highly developed and was relatively brief in duration. However, it was precisely in this state of an underdeveloped and short-lived slave system that we entered feudal society earlier and faster, and maintained leading development for a long time. "Within the feudal category, China's development was the highest, its economy the wealthiest, and its politics the most unified... The people also had higher organizational capacity and combativeness." "In the entire history of the world before capitalism, patriotism developed to its highest level in China." "China is the unique special case that had already developed into a nation during the feudal stage." "Various regions in the world were less developed within the feudal category, so no nations emerged; their becoming nations was generally a matter of the process of entering capitalist society. The so-called 'long-term stagnation of Chinese society' was actually not stagnation, but long-term and high-level development within the feudal scope." This analysis is rich in original spirit of theoretical innovation. The "world's bests" he mentioned are sufficient to show the style of Chinese civilization's leading development during the feudal society stage. Of course, from another perspective, China's backwardness during the capitalist social formation stage became inevitable. This was necessitated by the characteristics of the basic social contradictions, rather than the personal factors of certain ruling-class figures or specific social policies.
As is well known, the countries and regions that first entered the capitalist social formation were all in Western Europe and North America where feudalism was underdeveloped. In modern times, Chinese civilization long faced the prominence of capitalism and imperialism. The backwardness of this stage brought extremely complex national psychology and political choice intentions to Chinese civilization. This was also a negative phenomenon produced under the conditions of the times. In 1929, the so-called advocacy of "wholesale Westernization" and the claim that "Chinese civilization is inferior to others in everything" written by Hu Shih for the Christian Yearbook was proposed against this background. However, the continuity of development of Chinese civilization with its five-thousand-year history and its ability to take turns in leading development among world civilizations have often shocked those who hold the "Western-Centric theory" of culture.
Chinese civilization was relatively backward during the capitalist stage of development, and it was difficult for it to become a typical capitalist state. However, since Marxism-Leninism activated the life-factors of Chinese civilization, in the era when the socialist social system appeared in human history, Chinese civilization once again walked at the forefront of world historical development. This is the law of a new round of originally backward countries moving to the forefront of social development and leading development. In the New Era, Chinese civilization faces the historical mission of leading development once again. Facing the goals of 2035 and 2049, the Chinese people are brimming with confidence and are determined to succeed.
Some people of insight in the world long ago saw the historical status and bright future prospects of Chinese civilization. The British historian Arnold J. Toynbee mentioned earlier is a representative among them. Toynbee spent decades painstakingly studying the history of the rise and fall of human civilizations. In the early 1970s, he transcended his own traditional research framework of several decades and reached a earth-shattering conclusion: "It is China that bears the destiny of bringing political unity and peace not just to half the world, but to the entire world." "Such a unity is precisely the absolute requirement of today's world."
Marx clearly pointed out in the concluding part of the first volume of Capital: "The monopoly of capital becomes a fetter upon the mode of production, which has sprung up and flourished along with, and under it. Centralization of the means of production and socialization of labor at last reach a point where they become incompatible with their capitalist integument. This integument is burst asunder. The knell of capitalist private property sounds." In an era when the basic contradictions of the entire world capitalist system tend toward the point of "bursting asunder," which country will be the first to detonate?
Initially, Marx and Engels predicted that several developed capitalist countries would "detonate" together, or that wherever the productive forces were most developed, that place would likely "detonate" first—particularly Britain, the earliest mature capitalist country. However, Marx's use of the "integument" (or shell) to describe the degree of solidity of a social system, combined with the imbalance of capitalist development, led Lenin to the conclusion that the socialist revolution would first "detonate" at the weakest link of capitalism. Wherever the "shell" was thin while possessing sharp basic contradictions of capitalism, there existed the possibility of the revolution first occurring and achieving victory. The emergence of the Soviet Union under the leadership of Lenin and Stalin once triggered armed intervention by more than a dozen imperialist countries. During World War II, the strength of the Soviet Red Army in eliminating fascism again triggered long-term fear and confrontation toward the Soviet Union from the American ruling class.
At the end of the 20th century, although the Soviet Union unfortunately disintegrated, the powerful Russia led by Putin is an obstacle that American hegemonism finds difficult to surmount. The success of the revolution in China—the great Eastern country with five thousand years of civilization—once triggered unexpected panic in the United States. Truman's anti-communism, the policy of supporting Chiang Kai-shek against the Communists, the Korean War, the Vietnam War, the blockade policy, and the construction of a crescent-shaped encirclement all eventually vanished into thin air due to Nixon's initiative to visit China. The American ruling class might be unwilling to reflect on a common saying of the Chinese people: "Had we known then what we know now, would we have acted so?" [28] The world trend is surging forward; those who follow it prosper, and those who resist it perish. This is the law and great trend of the development of world civilization. In the face of this great trend, is there still anyone who blindly believes in hegemonism and unilateralism, and still wants to repeat the historical preference for harming others and oneself by launching wars of aggression?
III. The New Mission of Realizing the "Two Combinations" in the New Era
Through more than a hundred years of struggle by the Chinese Communists, and particularly in the historical process where the Sinicization of Marxism realized Three Great Leaps [29], Chinese civilization has trekked across mountains and rivers, weathered the storms of the era, and displayed a development process and laws quite different from other civilizations in the world. In the New Era, we have reached a new starting point for leading development. Xi Jinping emphasized: "We persist in combining the basic tenets of Marxism with China's specific realities and with China's excellent traditional culture. We continuously promote the Sinicization and modernization of Marxism, and advance the creative transformation and innovative development of China's excellent traditional culture." Realizing the "Two Combinations" of the Sinicization and modernization of Marxism is the new historical mission of Marxist research in our country. According to Xi Jinping's relevant discourses, this new historical mission includes the following three requirements.
First, inherit the glorious tradition of the Sinicization and modernization of Marxism, and promote the adaptation of China's excellent traditional culture to socialist society through the "Two Combinations."
Since the early 1930s, when Mao Zedong creatively achieved the first historic leap in the Sinicization of Marxism, the Sinicization of Marxism has achieved two new leaps during the new period of reform, opening up, and socialist modernization, and in the New Era of socialism with Chinese characteristics. In the New Era, our Party has explicitly identified the Sinicization of Marxism as a glorious tradition in the Party's guiding ideology. The Sinicization and modernization of Marxism is the combination of Marxism with China's concrete realities, and simultaneously the combination of Marxism with fine traditional Chinese culture. In every historical period led by our Party, it has been the Sinicization and modernization of Marxism that has guided our Party from victory to victory. Today, we must continue to inherit and carry forward this glorious tradition, becoming more conscious in fulfilling the new mission of the Sinicization and modernization of Marxism in the New Era.
Xi Jinping emphasized: "We must persist in upholding the fundamentals and breaking new ground, promote the adaptation of fine traditional Chinese culture to socialist society, display the unique spiritual identifiers of the Chinese nation, and better construct the Chinese spirit, Chinese values, and Chinese strength." This involves two "integrations": first, the integration of the reality of today’s socialism with Chinese characteristics with the historical Sinicization and modernization of Marxism; second, the integration of today’s reality with fine traditional Chinese culture. This is a task of "comprehending the shifts between the past and the present" [30] to open up a new realm of the Sinicization and modernization of Marxism. Our deeper understanding today of the source and flow of Chinese civilization is intended to better guide people, especially the youth, to look and move forward, creating a new situation for the cause of socialism with Chinese characteristics and achieving new accomplishments in the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation with a more substantial Chinese spirit, Chinese values, and Chinese strength.
Viewed historically, the reason our Party successfully solved a series of difficult problems in revolution and construction, winning the New Democratic Revolution and the socialist revolution and construction, is that it persisted in the Sinicization and modernization of Marxism, which includes the content of the "Two Combinations." This is not only our experience but our tradition. Looking at hostile forces at home and abroad, this is precisely what they have always focused on undermining. Although the trend of historical nihilism [31] advocated by Western hostile forces takes various forms, its objectives possess striking similarities. The spearhead of their attacks and sabotage is aimed both at the fine traditional culture of Chinese history and, even more so, at the nascent socialist system. Therefore, our emphasis today on combining the basic tenets of Marxism with China’s concrete realities and with fine traditional Chinese culture—systematizing and emphasizing the tradition of the "Two Combinations" in the Sinicization of Marxism—is both the preservation and development of fine traditional Chinese culture and, more importantly, the maintenance and defense of the actual contemporary carrier of scientific socialism in China. Our efforts to adapt fine traditional Chinese culture to socialist society emphasize absorbing the treasures of fine traditional Chinese culture under the guidance of Marxism; they aim to better realize the combination of the basic tenets of Marxism with fine traditional Chinese culture and to let fine traditional Chinese culture better serve the cause of scientific socialism.
Second, we must unswervingly uphold the guiding position of Marxism in the ideological sphere.
The theoretical foundation guiding our thinking is Marxism; this has been the unshakeable ideological foundation of the nation since the founding of the New China. The scientific worldview of Marxism is the weapon for guiding our understanding of history and our creation of the future. Xi Jinping emphasized: "Our Party has always viewed the history of the Chinese nation from the standpoint, viewpoint, and method of historical materialism, inheriting and promoting fine traditional Chinese culture." "We must persist in the fundamental guiding ideology of Marxism, inherit and promote revolutionary culture, develop advanced socialist culture, and seek the 'source of living water' [32] from fine traditional Chinese culture."
Since the beginning of the modern era, China has lived within the environment of world history. With the progression, ebbs, and flows of globalization, the connections and interactions between countries have become increasingly close. Today, we face changes unseen in a century, and the shifting domestic and international environments have formed a multicultural world and public opinion environment. Within this pluralistic global environment, every country has its own dominant ideology and guiding thought. Exploiting the reforms and adjustments of socialist countries, Western hegemonic powers have taken the opportunity to export ideas such as "total Westernization," "liberal democracy and human rights," "constitutional democracy," and "the separation of powers and multi-party rotation of government" to developing countries, even engaging in subversive activities. A number of socialist countries collapsed—the party destroyed and the state lost—because they accepted these inducements and subversions. China, summarizing decades of positive and negative experiences and lessons at home and abroad, has further emphasized the comprehensive implementation of Xi Jinping Thought on Socialism with Chinese Characteristics for a New Era, unswervingly placing Marxism in the guiding position of ideology. This is a major historic achievement of the Party.
The guiding position of Marxism is reflected not only in ideology but also in treating fine traditional Chinese culture with scientific methods. First, fine traditional Chinese culture must take the ranks of Chinese Marxists as the leading force of research, relying primarily on the Chinese people's own research and interpretation. This is an expression of national cultural sovereignty. At the same time, we must research, absorb, and promote those components with strong "people-oriented" [33] character according to the basic theories of Marxism, while discarding those components with significant limitations of the exploiting classes. We must make creative transformation and innovative development in light of the needs of the socialist cause. Therefore, the combination of the basic tenets of Marxism with fine traditional Chinese culture belongs to a process where Marxist guidance is manifested within the combination, achieving a new synthesis under the guidance of the basic tenets of Marxism.
In terms of content, the "Two Combinations" under Marxist guidance also imply that this is not only a study and combination with the fine traditional culture of history, but also includes the inheritance and promotion of revolutionary culture and the development and promotion of advanced socialist culture. Furthermore, it constitutes a systematic study and comprehensive summary of a socialist form of civilization, displaying a brand-new image of socialist civilization. Therefore, we must utilize Xi Jinping's relevant expositions—especially the "Great Perspective on History" [34]—to view history and reality. Only by viewing the Party's history according to the themes, main lines, mainstream, and essence can we achieve the organic integration of fine traditional Chinese culture, revolutionary culture, and advanced socialist culture.
In terms of objectives, the "Two Combinations" under Marxist guidance is not merely the selection and application of content; it also involves researching and forming an academic system, disciplinary system, and discourse system for Chinese civilization, completing the study of the New Form of Chinese Civilization. This is a more profound and systematic research and development. Thus, the ranks of Marxist theorists have a long way to go; their task is both glorious and arduous.
Third, we must give full play to the educational role of fine traditional Chinese culture.
The study of fine traditional Chinese culture differs from general academic research; it is a major research project concerning the cause of national rejuvenation. Global hegemonism will not accept defeat. Facing China's rise and development, they will inevitably create various interferences and obstacles to block and undermine the process of China's national rejuvenation. This results in a competition and contest of national hard power and soft power. In this contest, we can only be certain of victory by giving full play to the inherent potential and advantages of Chinese civilization. Xi Jinping emphasized: "We must fully utilize the research results of projects like the 'Project to Trace the Origins of Chinese Civilization' to tell the story of ancient Chinese history more completely and accurately, better utilizing the role of history in educating people." "We must create a strong social atmosphere for inheriting Chinese civilization... educating and guiding the masses, especially the youth, to better understand and identify with Chinese civilization, and to enhance the ambition, integrity, and backbone of being Chinese." Therefore, our research starting from the origins of Chinese civilization seeks to base itself on the historical facts of five thousand years of Chinese civilization to seek truth, reveal the objective truths existing in practice, master the laws of the development of Chinese civilization, and strengthen the confidence of the people—especially the youth—in certain victory, so as to achieve the historical task of the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation.
The basic tenets of Marxism achieve Sinicization in the process of combining with China's concrete realities and fine traditional Chinese culture; Chinese civilization achieves modernization in the process of combining with the basic tenets of Marxism; and the innovative achievements of the Sinicization and modernization of Marxism achieve popularization in the process of research, education, and dissemination. This is the new "trilogy" of the historical mission for the entire ranks of Marxist theorists.
At the same time, we must properly handle the relationship between contemporary China and the world, letting the world understand China and comprehend Chinese civilization. Equality, mutual learning, dialogue, and inclusiveness represent China's breadth of mind in promoting a community with a shared future for humanity. Being credible, lovable, and respectable is China’s standard image. "Constantly striving for self-improvement" and "holding the world with great virtue" [35] constitute the heritage and reality of Chinese civilization. "A just cause enjoys abundant support" [36]; a righteous nation will surely have friends all over the world, and the historical task of the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation will surely be achieved.