Han Qingxiang: On the Theoretical Form of Chinese Modernization
Our Party has proposed the proposition of the "cultural form of Chinese-path modernization"; naturally, and inevitably, there follows the question of the "theoretical form of Chinese-path modernization." The report to the 20th CPC National Congress has already preliminarily constructed the theoretical system of Chinese-path modernization from a political dimension. Based on this theoretical system, it is naturally necessary to further construct the theoretical form of Chinese-path modernization from an academic perspective.
Comrade Xi Jinping has pointed out: "Promoting the systematization and 'academicization' [学理化] of theory is an internal requirement and an important path for theoretical innovation." Throughout the history of human social development and thought, all important theories with historical significance and epochal value possess the characteristics of systematization and academicization. This is both a general law for the formation and development of important ideological theories and a basic standard for their scientific rigor. Therefore, academic construction is both a basic method for revealing and explaining the scientific connotations of an ideological and theoretical system, and an internal requirement for demonstrating and manifesting its epochal value.
From the perspective of historical geneticism [历史发生学], based on the exploration of the path of socialism with Chinese characteristics and the historical evolution of socialist modernization, the theoretical form of Chinese-path modernization has emerged along a historical logic of "practical exploration of Chinese-path modernization — formal proposal of the proposition of Chinese-path modernization — formation and development of the theoretical system of Chinese-path modernization — preliminary construction of the theoretical form of Chinese-path modernization." From the perspective of the evolution of Chinese ideological construction and ideological work [意识形态建设], and based on the theoretical genealogy of modernization pioneered and promoted by the West, the theoretical form of Chinese-path modernization is precisely a choice of historical consciousness and autonomy made through competition and comparison with Western theoretical systems, in a context where those systems occupy a central and dominant position. In a certain sense, the theoretical form of Chinese-path modernization emerged and was constructed specifically against the theoretical system of "Western-centrism"; it is distinct from and transcends that system, serving as a sharp sword to deconstruct "Western-centrism."
Broadly speaking, "Western-centrism" is an expanded Eurocentrism, an amplification of Eurocentrism's own logic and power system. It shares an isomorphic relationship with the global expansion of capitalism and regards the non-Western world as an object for Western expansion and colonization, thereby possessing a strong and distinct consciousness of hegemony. Hegel provided the most systematic, profound, and sophisticated philosophical demonstration of Eurocentrism and "Western-centrism." "Western-centrism" is a theoretical system and ideology constructed of basic elements such as: "linear paths," "singular civilization," "racial superiority," "self-centered humanity," "social evolution," "rational standards" (or "omnipotent reason"), "universal values," "civilizing missions," "beautiful myths" (or the "myth of God"), and "the sole philosophy." Marx's theory of the Eastern path of development in his later years, Lenin's exploration of the path of transition to socialism in economically and culturally backward Russia, and the Chinese Communists' proposal of "taking one’s own path," the path of socialism with Chinese characteristics, the new path of Chinese-path modernization, and Chinese-path modernization itself—all these are historical fruits of the critique and transcendence of "Western-centrism." Chinese-path modernization is a civilizational vision for humanity's realization of modernization that rejects the narrative logic of "Western-centrism." With the power of thought, the theoretical form of Chinese-path modernization not only breaks the discourse hegemony of "Western-centrism" but also guides the practical development of Chinese-path modernization, providing a new choice for humanity's realization of modernization. Based on this understanding, the academic construction of the theoretical form of Chinese-path modernization has become the basic approach to further elevating its theoretical system.
Academically speaking, the theoretical form of Chinese-path modernization is constructed based on the following ten elements and their internal logic:
I. Essential Characteristics: Chinese-path Modernization Implies Diversity in Development Paths
"Western-centrism" holds that the Western path of modernization is the universal and sole path for the world to achieve modernization; if countries want to modernize, they must follow the Western path. In our Chinese parlance, it is as if—to use the idiom—"since ancient times, there has been only one path up Mount Hua" [1]. This theory only sees the universality of modernization while ignoring its particularity.
In reality, any style of modernization is a unity of universality and particularity. Undisputedly, Chinese-path modernization shares common characteristics with the modernization of all countries. Regarding horizontal general elements, in the historical process of structural change from an agricultural to an industrial society, any country pursuing modernization must emphasize industrialization, urbanization, and economic globalization; must emphasize the market economy, science, and technology; and must emphasize the rule of law, fairness and justice, freedom and equality. Since the Reform and Opening-up, China's socialist modernization has also emphasized these general elements. Regarding longitudinal laws of development, any country pursuing modernization must also follow the general laws of modernization. How are these general laws revealed? This is an important theoretical issue that the academic community needs to investigate further. In my humble opinion, the general laws of modernization for all countries can be summarized as follows: the takeoff stage focuses relatively on the impetus for development; the stage of continuous operation focuses relatively on the balance and harmony of development; and when the momentum for development is insufficient or imbalance occurs, focus must shift to governance. Chinese-path modernization also follows this general law.
Comrade Xi Jinping pointed out: "The historical traditions, cultural accumulation, and basic national conditions of each country and nation are different, so their development paths must have their own characteristics." He placed the issue of development paths at the top of the "Four Clear Explanations" [2], highlighting the foundational significance of the development path to modernization. Every country pursuing modernization will inevitably possess its own characteristics. The development path of Chinese-path modernization is a concentrated expression of "diversity." As we say in China, "all roads lead to Rome." In today's world, the modernizations with the greatest global influence are Western modernization and Chinese-path modernization. In contrast to Western capitalist modernization—which is "capital-centered, creates polarization, is driven by rampant materialism, and relies on external expansion and plunder at the expense of other backward countries"—and in order to deconstruct the "linear view of history" and the "linear path" of Western modernization, the essential characteristic of Chinese-path modernization is concentrated in its "Chinese characteristics." This is the "diversity-generating" logic of Chinese-path modernization, which answers the question of "what" Chinese-path modernization is from the perspective of its "generative path."
"The general can only exist in the individual, and only through the individual." "No individual can be completely included in the general." Theoretically, Chinese-path modernization adheres to the multilinearity of historical development paths and the diversity of paths toward socialism. It holds that while all countries will eventually move toward modernization, they must choose an autonomous development path suited to their own national conditions and capable of solving their own problems, based on their own history, culture, and traditions. One must never "try to fit China's feet into Western shoes," "tailor Chinese reality to Western formulas," or "plow the Western field while leaving the Chinese field fallow." Otherwise, the result will be counterproductive. In practice, Chinese-path modernization emphasizes conformity with China's specific realities and persistence in "taking one's own path." It possesses Chinese characteristics; it is socialist modernization led by the Communist Party of China. It is "the modernization of a massive population, of common prosperity for all, of material and cultural-ethical [精神文明] advancement, of harmony between humanity and nature, and of peaceful development." This profoundly reveals the scientific connotation and essential characteristics of Chinese-path modernization, revealing its foundation, source, root, and soul. Historically, if we trace back the arduous exploration of China's modernization process, analyze the solid footprints of its practical emergence, and take stock of its significance for human civilization, it is not difficult to find that in defining its choice of development path and its essential requirements and major principles, Chinese-path modernization possesses a strong consciousness of historical laws and historical agency [主体意识]. It embodies the unity of universality and particularity, continuity and stage-specific development, and progress and twists and turns in history, as well as the multilinearity of historical development paths.
The particularity of the path of Chinese-path modernization is mainly reflected in: 1) the particularity of its political foundation—namely, socialist modernization under the leadership of the CPC as chosen by history and the people; 2) the particularity of its historical and cultural foundation—namely, its deep cultural roots and historical traditions; 3) the particularity of its realistic foundation—namely, the modernization of a massive population; 4) the particularity of its essential characteristics—namely, that it is fundamentally different from Western capitalist modernization, which is "capital-centered, creates polarization, is driven by rampant materialism, and relies on external expansion and plunder at the expense of other backward countries"; 5) the particularity of its theoretical foundation—namely, the Sinicized and modernized Marxism formed through the "Two Combinations" [3]; 6) the particularity of its philosophical foundation—namely, "subject-subject equality and benefit-sharing" (which will be analyzed in detail later); and 7) the particularity of its practical vision—namely, firmly grasping the five major principles and striving to build a great modern socialist country that is prosperous, strong, democratic, culturally advanced, harmonious, and beautiful.
Academically, the understanding of the essential characteristics of Chinese-path modernization can be further deepened through five logics:
(1) Political logic: It is socialist modernization led by the CPC, embodying the essential requirements of socialism. This distinguishes it from Western modernization in terms of nature and direction.
(2) Epochal [时代] logic: It is the "Era of the Strong Country." This is the era in which our country, having developed, moves toward becoming strong—the era of fully building a great modern socialist country and achieving the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation (or strong-country construction and national rejuvenation). The "five-phrase" essential characteristics of Chinese-path modernization are aligned with the "Era of the Strong Country" in which a large nation becomes a powerful one; it is the modernization of a large nation becoming strong.
(3) Realistic logic: The massive population. This means that Chinese-path modernization differs from the West; its difficulty and complexity are unprecedented, and its development path and methods of advancement also differ. Therefore, in the overall transition to a modern society, one must not rush for quick results; one must maintain historical patience and adhere to the principle of "seeking progress while maintaining stability," moving forward in a step-by-step and continuous manner.
(4) Theoretical foundation: The New Development Philosophy. Featuring innovative, coordinated, green, open, and shared development, the New Development Philosophy is the only path for our country to grow and become strong. This is a vital understanding of the laws of development reached through long-term practice. Most notably, the "modernization of common prosperity for all" is essentially identical to "shared development"; the "modernization of material and cultural-ethical advancement" is essentially connected to "coordinated development"; the "modernization of harmony between humanity and nature" is essentially related to "green development"; the "modernization of the path of peaceful development" is essentially aligned with "open development"; and the "modernization of a massive population," which requires unleashing the great creative power of hundreds of millions of people, is inherently linked to "innovative development."
The path of Chinese-path modernization contains the diversity, innovativeness, uniqueness, and autonomy of modernization paths. It is a new paradigm and type of modernization path with world significance. Deeply rooted in fine traditional Chinese culture, historical traditions, and China's national conditions, it embodies the advanced nature of scientific socialism, draws upon all the outstanding achievements of human civilization, and represents the direction of human progress. It presents a new vision different from the Western model, breaking the myth that "modernization = Westernization" (as if "there has been only one path up Mount Hua since ancient times") and emphasizing that "all roads lead to Rome." It has innovatively blazed a new type of modernization path, expanding the options for developing countries and providing a new choice for humanity.
This essentially advocates a non-linear view of history and modernization, distinct from the linear historical view of "Western-centrism" and the path-view that "the Western path is the only path." This is the "path-existence" of Chinese-path modernization.
II. Form of Civilization: Chinese-path Modernization Creates a Modern Chinese Civilization and a New Form of Human Civilization
Examining the long-standing, widespread, and even deep-rooted theories regarding the forms of civilization, those that use social forms as their basis...
The "five stages" theory [4], the "three stages" theory of civilization—hunting-gathering, agriculture, and industry—which uses technological forms as its evidence, and the "two stages" theory based on the dichotomy of "traditional versus modern," all maintain that civilization possesses uniqueness, identity, unilinearity, determinacy, and normativity. They hold that the form of civilization is monistic and singular. Consequently, they argue that civilization belongs only to Europe or the West, and that those "noble nations" possessing early-development modernization stand at the commanding heights of human civilizational development. In terms of values, these nations possess the right to discourse [5] in explaining how the world operates and how history progresses, while non-Western "uncivilized nations" are categorized as "barbaric and ignorant nations" in need of civilizing. This essentially practices what Bowden calls a "singular" monistic civilization.
In response to this fabricated myth of a "singular" monistic civilization, Chinese-path modernization—as a concrete form of the realization of human civilization in China—asserts that civilization is a holistic description of the development and progress of society and the individual based on "truth, goodness, and beauty." It is essentially a "factual judgment." Therefore, it advocates for the diversity of civilizations and the necessity of mutual learning and exchange; this can be termed the "plural" view of civilization. This constitutes the "civilizational" logic of Chinese-path modernization, primarily addressing how Chinese-path modernization manifests "human civilization."
"Building the modern civilization of the Chinese nation is an inevitable requirement for advancing Chinese-path modernization." This is one of the essential requirements of Chinese-path modernization and represents a new form of human civilization. This is an explicit declaration and concentrated expression of the civilizational form of Chinese-path modernization. Combining the aforementioned understandings, we attempt to provide a scholarly explanation of the scientific connotation and deep logic of the civilizational form of Chinese-path modernization from five aspects: origin, relationship, process, structure, and function.
Modern civilization of the Chinese nation in the sense of origin reveals its ontological existence. The ontological starting point of civilization is the "human" (in terms of truth, goodness, and beauty) rather than "objects"; it is based on the progress—the universal benefit—of the whole of human society and individual development rooted in "altruism" (weita). We must not forget or overlook the starting point of the "person" because of the advancement of civilizational processes, nor forget that civilization is the rejection of ignorance, barbarism, and ugliness, and represents the persistent "primordial" pursuit of "truth, goodness, and beauty" along with its accumulated positive results. To this end, the view of civilization upheld by Chinese-path modernization possesses four elements: the unremitting pursuit of innovative drive, capacity, and vitality and their accumulated positive outcomes; the unremitting pursuit of balance and harmony and its accumulated positive outcomes; the effective governance of the world, nation, and society through the synergy of the rule of virtue and the rule of law; and the pursuit of progress for humanity, groups, and individuals alongside the world, nations, and society to achieve symbiosis, common progress, and shared prosperity, resulting in a well-ordered state where everyone lives a better life.
Modern civilization of the Chinese nation in the sense of relationship reveals its relational existence. Everything exists within a system composed of various relations; civilization is primarily grasped through the differentiation and analysis of its relationship with culture. Both "civilization" (wenming) and "culture" (wenhua) are difficult concepts to define clearly; they share a direct and complex relationship, with people often equating them or setting them in opposition. In fact, they share commonalities as products of "humanization" (renhua) and in their function of "transforming people" (huaren). However, the urgent task is to clarify the distinction between culture and civilization. Clarifying this distinction not only deepens the understanding of cultural and civilizational issues but also promotes theoretical breakthroughs in culture and civilization studies.
Philosophy is the living soul of civilization. I previously believed, and now emphasize even more, that we can advance the "Project to Trace the Origins of Civilization" [6] not only through archaeology and philology but also through philosophy. In a philosophical sense, there are important distinctions between civilization and culture.
First, the relativity differs. Culture is mainly spoken of in relation to "primordial nature" that has not been externalized through human activity; it refers to "humanized nature" and "humanized objects," the objectification of man's essential internal powers. In this regard, it defines the basic trajectory of the meaning of culture. Civilization, however, is spoken of in relation to uncultivated "barbarism" and "ugliness"; it refers to the "developmental progress," process, and results of humanity's pursuit of truth, goodness, and beauty. In this regard, it defines the basic trajectory of the meaning of civilization. As Bowden states in Civilized Empires, traditionally, the opposite of civilization is barbarism.
Second, the philosophical foundations are relatively different. The philosophical basis of culture is epistemology, primarily related to understanding the world. It relatively emphasizes "humanized" objects or the "transformation of humans into objects" within the framework of the relationship between humans and things. It focuses on using cultural knowledge, technology, and skills to do and transform things, emphasizing externalization in objects and adhering primarily to the "scale of the object." Categories such as "rationality," "knowledge," "craftsmanship," "science and technology," and "social wealth" are its common rubrics. Culture also carries the meaning of "transforming the person" (huaren), i.e., emphasizing the mastery of cultural knowledge and skills by the "natural person" to adapt to society, transforming the "natural person" into a "social person." However, the "transforming" and "humanizing" aspects of culture have both positive and negative sides. The positive side transforms the person and the object by converting culture into civilization. The function of education lies in "transformation"—transforming one into both a "cultured person" and a "civilized person." However, our contemporary education emphasizes the "cultured person" in excess while the "civilized person" is neglected. The philosophical basis of civilization is primarily value philosophy and moral philosophy, related to transforming the world and educating/cultivating people. It relatively emphasizes "transforming the person" within the framework of human-to-human relationships—that is, the positive result of making a person "human" (from a natural person to a social person, and then to a person with a sound personality). It is a type of "cultivating" and "educational" self-restraint, self-perfection, and self-progress for humanity. It focuses on transforming the person to be a person and to be altruistic, emphasizing internalization in the person and transforming the person toward goodness; it adheres primarily to the "scale of the human." Categories such as "virtue," "virtuous conduct across the world," "good governance," "ethics and morality," "democracy and the rule of law," and "fairness and justice" are its common rubrics. It also contains "humanizing" factors, but these are positive results of altruistic development and progress caused by the advancement of human nature during the humanization process. Here, culture is not entirely equal to civilization, and civilization is not entirely equal to culture. Culture contains civilization but is not all civilization; civilization contains culture but is not equal to all culture. That is, civilization is the "goodness of culture"—it is the progressive aspect of cultural achievements that is conducive to the progress of human nature and transforms the person toward "goodness." Culture is the prerequisite for civilization; civilization is the sublimation of culture. Civilization is higher than culture because Western culture can, in a certain sense, alienate into barbarism, while civilization specifically refers to the facts of transforming people toward goodness and altruistic progress. Fukuzawa Yukichi pointed out: "In the uncultivated age of barbarism, the only thing governing human relations was morality."
Third, the emphasis is relatively different. Culture is a concept based on nationality and regionality; it relatively emphasizes the national self, national characteristics, national differences, and national identity. It values tradition and focuses on boundaries. This is the case with what people commonly call European culture, Chinese culture, or Indian culture. Civilization, of course, also manifests national characteristics and uniqueness, but from the perspective of the development and progress of all humanity, it places more emphasis on the unity, integration, and mutual learning between nations. It focuses on the world significance possessed by national or regional civilizations; it transcends boundaries and values the progress of human nature and human progress. The concepts of agricultural civilization, industrial civilization, and ecological civilization as discussed in a certain sense are examples of this.
Fourth, the function is relatively different. Culture can be divided into advanced or backward, good or bad, superior or inferior. Backward and bad culture will hinder the development and progress of humanity, nations, and society, including civilizational progress. Our past discourse on "representing the developmental orientation of China's advanced culture" [7] indicates that culture is divided into "advanced" and "backward." Civilization, as a descriptive concept based on facts, represents the positive results precipitated from the evolution of human and cultural development that contribute to the progress of human nature, humanity, nations, and society. It is the advanced aspect and state of culture, suitable for all humanity to share. It only differs in characteristics; it does not differ in terms of superiority or inferiority. Comrade Xi Jinping pointed out: all civilizations have their flaws; no perfect civilization exists in the world, nor does one that is entirely without merit. However, "civilizations do not differ by rank or superiority, but only by characteristics and geography."
Fifth, the mode of existence is relatively different. The essence of culture is the manifestation of the production, life, behavior, and thinking modes of people in a certain region; it is the existential style of a country or nation and is non-replicable, such as Chinese culture. The essence of civilization is the "image-based" presentation of a country or nation's production, life, behavior, and thinking modes, as well as its existential style. It is the positive state of manifestation of the facts of a country or nation's development and progress, such as political civilization.
Modern civilization of the Chinese nation in the sense of process reveals its processual existence. The process of civilizational evolution at the philosophical level emphasizes historical changes in the paradigms of human social interaction (jiaowang). According to Marx’s "three stages" theory of social and human development [8], this process can be described as: a "subject-object undifferentiated" civilizational paradigm based on "personal dependence"—a "subject-object dichotomy" civilizational paradigm based on "objective dependence"—and a "subject-subject equality" civilizational paradigm based on "the free and well-rounded development of each individual."
Modern civilization of the Chinese nation in the sense of structure reveals its structural existence; that is, civilization can and should be understood within the relational structure between humans and the world. Modern civilization of the Chinese nation—the civilizational view of Chinese-path modernization—means vigorously developing material civilization and achieving common prosperity in the relationship between humans and objects; in human-to-human relations, it means interpersonal civilization, treating people as ends; in the relationship between the human body and mind, it means spiritual civilization, achieving spiritual abundance; in the relationship between humans and nature, it means ecological civilization, moving toward the harmonious coexistence of man and nature; in the relationship between humans and society, it means social civilization, emphasizing fairness, justice, and good governance; and in the relationship between humans and the state, it means political civilization, emphasizing the combined rule of virtue and law and whole-process people's democracy.
Modern civilization of the Chinese nation in the sense of function reveals its functional existence. Modern civilization of the Chinese nation—the civilizational perspective of Chinese-path modernization—advocates for the unification of evaluation standards for civilizational progress (not "double standards"), the impartiality of the evaluating subjects (avoiding discourse monopolies), the justice of evaluation methods (conducive to human progress), and the consensus of evaluation discourse (rather than self-centeredness). It prevents the alienation of civilization into barbarism through the abuse of discourse power and opposes the transition into imperial colonial expansion via the monopolization of "civilizational standards." Bowden noted that civilization "is a concept that can both describe reality and shape reality," and the "power of this term is quite significant; it can be used for both praise and condemnation."
Based on human society, Chinese-path modernization has created the modern civilization of the Chinese nation; this is a new form of human civilization. This essentially promotes a pluralist and diverse view of civilization, which is distinct from and superior to the "singular view of civilization" of "Western-centrism." This is the "civilizational existence" of Chinese-path modernization.
III. National Characteristics: Chinese-Path Modernization Manifests the Distinct Characteristics of the Chinese Nation
The general modalities and common features of modernization emphasized by the West either strip modernization of its national attributes to emphasize "modernity" or, as Bowden calls it, "racial exceptionalism." Their essence is to defend "Western-centrism." In response to the "racial exceptionalism" inherent in "Western-centrism," we emphasize the national characteristics of Chinese-path modernization—that is, we emphasize that Chinese civilization best embodies the prominent characteristics of the Chinese nation. This is the "nationality" logic of Chinese-path modernization, primarily answering the question of the "roots and veins" of Chinese-path modernization.
Max Weber emphasized: "The nation-state is the union of the state and the nation." In a general sense, different nations possess their own characteristic natural conditions (such as geographical environment), historical heritage (such as language, scripts, cultural traditions, and moral customs), and social conditions (such as economic strength, cultural power, and political influence). The internal connection and comprehensive effect of these factors inevitably create different national characteristics. As the latest achievement of theoretical innovation in the "Two Combinations" [9], Chinese-path modernization and its theoretical forms are rooted in the deep civilizational soil of the Chinese nation. It leads the composition of the modern civilization of the Chinese nation, commits to building a great modern socialist country and achieving the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation. Thus, it endows itself with profound and distinct cultural characteristics and prominent features of the Chinese nation, becoming the modernized chapter of the essence of Chinese culture and the Chinese spirit in our times. Excellent traditional Chinese culture contains many important elements that collectively shape the prominent characteristics of Chinese civilization. In his important speech at the Symposium on Cultural Inheritance and Development, Comrade Xi Jinping systematically and profoundly elucidated for the first time that Chinese civilization possesses five prominent characteristics: continuity, innovation, unity, inclusion, and peacefulness. This is both the latest elucidation of the prominent characteristics of Chinese civilization and the fundamental guidance for our understanding and grasping of the national characteristics and national foundation of Chinese-path modernization.
An unceasing vital gene manifests the prominent continuity of the Chinese nation. In the sense of historical process, this places Chinese-path modernization within the long river of human development, revealing the national source of the powerful vitality possessed by Chinese-path modernization when compared with other modes of modernization. The life-source and historical foundations of Chinese-path modernization originated in the production and life practices of the Chinese nation. This is reflected not only in the barriers against foreign invasion provided by a naturally-formed enclosed geographical environment, the basic resources for maintaining social production provided by the large-scale population generated by the concept of "many children, much bliss," and the means of survival and livelihood provided by the natural economy formed through peaceful coexistence with nature, but also in the Great Unity [10] political society and its ultra-stable social structure maintained by continuous ritual teachings and patriarchal systems.
The vital nourishment and practical foundation of Chinese-path modernization derive from the rich and abundant fruits of civilization created by the Chinese nation, the fine cultural genes passed down through a continuous lineage, and the vast civilizational achievements created successively. In particular, the immense material wealth and spiritual genealogy created by the Communist Party of China (CPC) leading the people of the whole country—on the basis of exploration by successive generations of people with lofty ideals since the beginning of the modern era—provide the thickest and most solid support for Chinese-path modernization. Consequently, "Chinese-path modernization is a modernization that continues an ancient civilization, rather than one that destroys it; it is a modernization that grew from the Chinese soil, rather than one mechanically copied from other countries; it is the result of civilizational renewal, rather than the product of civilizational rupture."
The vital spirit and value foundation of Chinese-path modernization derive from Marxism and are rooted in fine traditional Chinese culture. This is mainly reflected in the fact that the Chinese nation has always been a cultural living entity of self-strengthening, struggle, and enterprise. The national consciousness of woe expressed as "thriving in sorrow and adversity, perishing in ease and pleasure" [11], the spirit of national self-confidence in "following one's own path," and the national will to struggle through "unceasing self-strengthening" are its clear expressions and concentrated embodiments. Therefore, the cosmic view, world view (Tianxia guan) [12], social view, and moral view of fine traditional Chinese culture are important intellectual resources for Chinese-path modernization. They have nourished the unique worldview, values, historical outlook, and views on civilization, democracy, and ecology inherent in Chinese-path modernization, endowing it with powerful historical and cultural confidence.
An all-embracing systemic structure manifests the prominent inclusiveness of the Chinese nation. In a systemic sense, this places Chinese-path modernization within the long river of the evolution of human thought, revealing the national source of its distinct systemicity when compared with other modes of modernization. The relative independence of the theoretical form of Chinese-path modernization and its inherent connection with the theoretical system of socialism with Chinese characteristics and Xi Jinping Thought on Socialism with Chinese Characteristics for a New Era; the fact that the theoretical form of Chinese-path modernization integrates philosophy, political economy, and scientific socialism across disciplines; its coverage of fields including economy, politics, culture, society, ecology, science and technology, military affairs, diplomacy, and Party building; and the mutual support between its positions, viewpoints, and methods in forming a scientific theoretical system—all of these are in the same lineage as the inclusive cultural genes and characteristics of the Chinese nation (centered on Confucianism and supplemented by Taoism, Buddhism, and Legalism) and the history of Chinese national culture where "diverse ethnic cultures" and a "singular Chinese culture" coexist.
Comrade Xi Jinping emphasized: "We must continuously deepen theoretical research and interpretation, focusing on the fundamental theoretical achievements among the new concepts and judgments proposed by our Party, grasping their internal connections, and educating and guiding the whole Party and the whole country to better study and grasp the theoretical system of the Thought on Socialism with Chinese Characteristics for a New Era." At present, a major and most pressing task is to reveal and explain the internal connection between the theoretical form of Chinese-path modernization and the theoretical system of socialism with Chinese characteristics and Xi Jinping Thought on Socialism with Chinese Characteristics for a New Era, so as to clarify confusion in understanding and thought.
The progressive concept of "returning to the root to innovate" (fanben kaixin) [13] manifests the prominent innovativeness of the Chinese nation. In a creative sense, this places Chinese-path modernization within the theoretical map of human social development, revealing the national source of its immense innovativeness when compared with other modes of modernization. The fundamental reason why Chinese-path modernization has been able to achieve great success, become a new choice for humanity to realize modernization, and create a modern civilization for the Chinese nation is that the CPC has always inherited the fine cultural tradition of "returning to the root to innovate," persisted in the "two combinations," vigorously promoted practical and theoretical innovation, and continuously advanced and realized the modernization of theory by advancing with the times.
The myths, legends, fables, and idioms passed down through Chinese culture—such as Nüwa mending the heavens, the Foolish Old Man moving mountains, Zhurong the Fire God, the golden-eyed Wuzhiqi, Suiren fetching fire, Great Yu controlling the floods, Fuxi drawing the trigrams, Shennong tasting the hundred herbs, Pangu creating the world, Jingwei filling the sea, Kua Fu chasing the sun, Nüwa creating humans, Hou Yi shooting the suns, the Deer Girl subduing the dragon, Ma Liang and his magic brush, and the Kitchen God saving the people—all contain the excellent qualities and innovative spirit of the Chinese nation. This "fundamentally determines the enterprising spirit of the Chinese nation in upholding the fundamentals without being archaic and respecting antiquity without returning to the past, and determines the fearless character of the Chinese nation in not fearing new challenges and having the courage to accept new things."
The value pursuit of holistic development manifests the prominent unity of the Chinese nation. A distinct characteristic of the value orientation of the theoretical form of Chinese-path modernization is its great emphasis on unity and commonality within a pattern of diversity. In the New Era, as all ethnic groups move together toward common prosperity in both material and spiritual life during the process of realizing socialist modernization, it echoes the spirit that "we are committed to common prosperity, so that every Chinese person can live a better life. Escaping poverty is the thousand-year dream of the Chinese nation. Common prosperity is the common expectation of the Chinese people." This also determines that Chinese-path modernization will inevitably gain the support of all ethnic groups within the great Chinese family.
The choice of the path of peaceful development manifests the prominent peacefulness of the Chinese nation. This not only expresses the broad-mindedness and sentiment for the world (Tianxia) advocated by the Chinese nation since antiquity—such as "harmonizing all nations," "benefiting the whole world," "appreciating the beauty of others to achieve shared beauty," and "Great Harmony in the world" [14]—it also "fundamentally determines that China will always be a builder of world peace, a contributor to global development, and a defender of the international order." The fact that Chinese-path modernization is the modernization of a path of peaceful development fully embodies this point.
The prominent characteristics of Chinese civilization express the distinct qualities of the Chinese nation, and these characteristics and qualities in turn provide the Chinese nation, and thus Chinese-path modernization, with significant national advantages. Chinese-path modernization has emerged from the great practice of China since the founding of the People's Republic, possessing continuity; it is distinct from and superior to Western modernization, possessing innovativeness; it is a socialist modernization led by the CPC while also sharing common characteristics with the modernization of all countries, possessing unity; it does not forget its origins, absorbs outward influences, and faces the future, possessing inclusiveness; and it follows a path of peaceful development, possessing peacefulness. It is distinct from and superior to the "racial superiority" of Western-centrism; it is the "national existence" of Chinese-path modernization.
IV. For-the-Otherness: Chinese-path Modernization Emphasizes the Other within Social Relations between the Self and the Group
In response to "Western-centrism" and "human independence based on objective dependence" [15], and the logic of human nature that emphasizes the self and "for-me-ness" in the relationship between the self and the group, Chinese-path modernization has realized a substantive transcendence of the Western understanding of human nature. This is concentrated in the definition of human nature and the essence of man within the social relationship between the self and the group, holding that the actual essence of man is the sum of social relations, and emphasizing the "other" within those social relations. This is the "human nature" logic of Chinese-path modernization, which primarily answers the question of its "human foundation."
Comrade Xi Jinping clearly pointed out: "The essence of modernization is the modernization of man." The deep-seated rationale for this judgment originates from the Chinese philosophical understanding of the essence of man.
The Chinese philosophical understanding of man is distinct from and superior to the Western philosophical understanding. Western philosophy relatively emphasizes understanding man from his natural essence, understanding man as a single individual, and stressing that the substance of man is the individual. it pays more attention to the natural attributes (or biological instincts) and spiritual attributes of the individual as a natural person, regarding the pursuit of material goods, interests, freedom, democracy, and human rights as self-evident, belonging to "natural rights," conforming to the natural order, and fitting human nature. Consequently, it views the possession of private property as sacred and inviolable, the pursuit of material wealth as supreme, individual freedom and democracy as natural rights, and the realization of self-value as the entire meaning of life. Thus, theories regarding human nature as "selfish," "self-preserving," and "man is a wolf to man" have appeared one after another. Here, "self" and "for-me" are essentially the incarnations of the West, the personified expression of the West, an amplified "Western self and Western for-me."
Chinese philosophy does not deny the natural attributes of man, but it places more emphasis on man's sociality and social relations. It advocates understanding the essence of man from a holistic perspective—that is, within groups, society, and relationships. It maintains that sociality and social relations occupy the fundamental and primary position in the definition of the essence of man, believing that merely regarding natural essence as the whole of human nature would inevitably equate man with animals. Man can only become man within the sum of certain social relations; this means that human social relations are also a kind of substance. One must understand and grasp man's sociality from the sum of his social relations, and understand man and his essence from his sociality and holism.
Accordingly, Chinese philosophy often understands and grasps man and his essence through "ethical relations," "group relations," the "other," and "benevolence for others" (wei ta zhi ren). It emphasizes that man is "man written large," becoming human within social group relations, realizing self-value through the creation of social value, and becoming a person of virtue through caring for the other. Therefore, a person should first emphasize their collectivity and care for the other within the group. Understanding and grasping man in this way is clearly much more civilized than the Western understanding.
The essential characteristics of Chinese-path modernization are defined and understood within various relationships and their "for-the-other" dimensions. Modernization with a huge population mainly speaks to the comparative relationship between China's population scale and the total population of developed countries during the process of marching into a modern society. Modernization of common prosperity for all the people mainly speaks to the relationship among all Chinese people in the creation and distribution of wealth. Modernization of material and cultural-ethical advancement mainly speaks to the relationship between material and spiritual civilization. Modernization of harmony between humanity and nature mainly speaks to the relationship between man and nature. Modernization of peaceful development mainly speaks to the relationship between China and other countries in the world.
In short, Chinese-path modernization is not the self-centered, egoistic, and "beggar-thy-neighbor" modernization of Western-centrism, but a modernization of self-dedication, serving society, and caring for others. This can be called the "view of man's for-the-other essence," and it is the "human existence" of Chinese-path modernization.
V. Social Governance: Chinese-path Modernization Adheres to the Unity of Dynamics, Balance, and Governance
In response to the "Western chaos" and "world predicament" (such as global opposition, conflict, and division) caused by the promotion of "social evolution" by Western-centrism, Chinese-path modernization applies the Marxist theory of the basic contradictions of society and absorbs the theory of social development mechanisms from the philosophy of development. It emphasizes that the modernization of governance is an inherent part of modernization and stresses that the construction of socialist modernization must adhere to the organic unity of dynamics, balance, and governance. This is the "governance" logic of Chinese-path modernization, primarily answering the question of "social governance."
As an organic unity of commonality and individuality, Chinese-path modernization necessarily requires the construction of a dimension of modernizing Chinese-path social governance. This dimension emphasizes that modernization is both a multi-linear systemic governance and a socio-historical development process with laws to follow. From a horizontal, static perspective, based on the multi-linearity of historical development paths, it emphasizes strategic thinking, overall planning, and holistic advancement of all elements of the modernization system—that is, emphasizing comprehensive coordination, overall consideration, and equal dividends for all. Most importantly, it must embody the essential requirements and major principles of Chinese-path modernization.
From a dynamic, vertical perspective, these laws insist on the unity of dynamics, balance, and governance in the development of modernization. That is to say, it focuses the strategic thinking, overall planning, holistic advancement, comprehensive coordination, and overall consideration inherent in the essential requirements and major principles of Chinese-path modernization onto the unity of dynamics, balance, and governance. It takes this as a principle of social governance, comprehensively implementing it in all fields and real-world processes of modernization. Adhering to the unity of dynamics, balance, and governance involves the organic unity of efficiency and fairness, and the organic unity of dynamics and balance. It embodies the essential requirements and major principles of Chinese-path modernization and is distinct from and superior to the "social evolutionism" of Western-centrism.
The kinetic mechanism of Chinese-path modernization refers to the power system and its operating logic, which are formed by the interconnectedness and interaction of the foundational and core elements in the construction of modernization. It seeks to resolve issues regarding the impetus, vitality, and efficacy of modernization, thereby imbuing all elements, aspects, and fields of modernization with developmental momentum and innovative vitality. According to the basic tenets of Marxism, the contradictory movement between the productive forces and the relations of production is the fundamental driver of human social development, while science and technology, institutional mechanisms, and class struggle serve as important drivers of social development. Constructing and perfecting the kinetic mechanism of Chinese-path modernization primarily addresses the fundamental task of liberating and developing the social productive forces to achieve high-quality development.
The balancing mechanism of Chinese-path modernization refers to the systemic coordination, equilibrium, and harmony among all elements, aspects, and fields of modernization, as well as the stability and orderliness of its operation and their underlying logic. Marxism scientifically delineated a beautiful blueprint for the ideal future society: "This communism... is the genuine resolution of the conflict between man and nature and between man and man—the true resolution of the strife between existence and essence, between objectification and self-confirmation, between freedom and necessity, between the individual and the species." Constructing and perfecting the balancing mechanism of Chinese-path modernization primarily addresses the comprehensive coordination, holistic planning [16], justice, harmony, stability, and order of various social elements. This ensures that the fruits of development benefit all people more equitably and extensively, ultimately reaching the goals of unity in struggle, win-win cooperation, and common prosperity.
The governance mechanism of Chinese-path modernization refers to the optimization and coordination among all elements, aspects, and fields of modernization and their operating logic. Constructing and perfecting the governance mechanism of Chinese-path modernization primarily addresses the misalignments between the relations of production and the productive forces, and between the superstructure and the economic base, as well as the issue of imperfect systems in the economic, political, cultural, social, and ecological civilization spheres. This mechanism both injects strong impetus and innovative vitality into the construction of modernization and promotes its balance, harmony, and stability.
Since the beginning of reform and opening-up, the reason our country has been able to create the "twin miracles" of rapid economic development and long-term social stability is that we have continuously advanced the modernization of the social governance system and governance capacity, and properly handled the relationship between reform, development, and stability in the construction of modernization. Correctly handling the relationship between reform, development, and stability is not only a basic experience of our country's reform, opening-up, and socialist modernization, but also a basic methodology followed throughout this process.
"Development" relates to the kinetic mechanism, "stability" relates to the balancing mechanism, and "reform" is essentially a governance mechanism; the goal of the latter is to resolve the organic unity of impetus and balance. When addressing the opening ceremony of the study session for newly elected members and alternate members of the CPC Central Committee on the study and implementation of the spirit of the 20th National Congress, Comrade Xi Jinping emphasized that advancing Chinese-path modernization must correctly handle a series of major relationships, such as those between efficiency and equity, and vitality and order. This is precisely our Party's deepening and expansion of the correct handling of the relationship between reform, development, and stability.
Chinese-path modernization emphasizes the unity of impetus, balance, and governance. It is distinct from and superior to the "social evolutionism" of "Western-centrism." It can be termed the "social governance outlook" and constitutes the "social existence" of Chinese-path modernization.
VI. The People's Standard: Chinese-Path Modernization Adheres to the People-Centered Development Philosophy
Countering the "rational scale" or "rational standard" view of "Western-centrism," Chinese-path modernization, in its essential requirements and major principles, insists on putting the people first and adheres to the people-centered development philosophy. It emphasizes that the fundamental yardstick for testing the success or failure of Chinese-path modernization is the "People's Standard." Apart from the People's Standard, nothing else can be achieved or even discussed. This is the "human-centered" or "people-as-foundation" [17] logic of Chinese-path modernization, which primarily answers the question of the "people-oriented nature" of Chinese-path modernization.
"Western-centrism" emphasizes the omnipotence of reason, asserting its uniqueness, subjectivity, adjudicative power, and dominance. It regards reason as the highest scale and evaluative standard for all things, insisting that everything must be brought before the "tribunal of reason" for judgment. This omnipotent reason is, in essence, the manifestation of "Western supremacy" and "the supremacy of Western standards," positing the West as the incarnation of that omnipotent reason.
Chinese-path modernization first follows the general logic and universal laws of modernization's development. it has not deviated from the progressive track of the world modernization process or the process of human civilization. This is the "truth-based" aspect of Chinese-path modernization; otherwise, it would not be qualified to be called modernization. However, on this basis, Chinese-path modernization is actively created and autonomously constructed by the Chinese people. While deepening and developing the universal laws of modernization, it places greater emphasis on putting the people first and adhering to the people-centered development philosophy, taking the fulfillment of the people's aspirations for a better life as the starting point and ultimate goal of modernization. While Chinese-path modernization certainly values the role of capital, its fundamental logic is not the logic of capital, but rather the human-centered and people-as-foundation logic of putting the people first. The core content of this logic is: treating the people as the subject and relying on them for everything; treating the people as the end and doing everything for them; treating the people as the standard and insisting on their supremacy; and treating the people as the foundation by remaining firmly rooted among them. Consequently, Chinese-path modernization regards developing whole-process people's democracy, enriching the people's spiritual world, achieving common prosperity for all, and promoting harmony between humanity and nature as its essential requirements, and views adhering to the people-centered development philosophy as a major principle. The "truth-based" and "people-oriented" nature of Chinese-path modernization's theoretical form has been fully verified by its remarkable results: the great practice of Chinese-path modernization has enabled the cause of the Party and the state to achieve historic successes and undergo historic changes, and it has constructed an effective Chinese paradigm for modernization. This is the theoretical basis and practical support for why it breaks the myth that "modernization = Westernization," and it represents a fundamental transcendence of Western modernization.
Chinese-path modernization regards the People's Standard—which integrates truth and the people-oriented nature—as the highest scale. This standard is essential, discriminative, and subjective, emphasizing that everything must be evaluated at the judgment seat of the People's Standard. It maintains that only by adhering to the People's Standard can Chinese-path modernization truly be realized. Therefore, the People's Standard can be used to lead Chinese-path modernization and to test the actual effectiveness of its advancement and expansion.
The People's Standard outlook is distinct from and superior to the rational scale or rational standard view of "Western-centrism." It can be termed the "People's Standard View" and constitutes the "people-oriented existence" of Chinese-path modernization.
VII. Common Values: Chinese-Path Modernization Advocates Promoting the Common Values of All Humanity
The common values of all humanity are essentially different from Western "universal values." The latter is both a philosophical value system and a bourgeois ideology advocated by "Western-centrism." "Universal values" are based on a "subject-object binary opposition" mode of thinking. In essence, they take "the Self" as the "Subject" and treat "the Other" as a pure "Object"—an object that is not equal to "the Self," or even fundamentally opposed to it. Consequently, "universal values" often unblushingly, or even shamelessly, use coercive means to impose their own value concepts through a sense of "self-superiority" centered on "the Self" (the West). Clearly, this binary mode of thinking practices "double standards" and "unilateralism."
The underlying logic of "universal values" is that the West is the definer of these values; their specific content is set according to the fundamental interests of capitalists and the bourgeoisie; it exports and promotes these values to the world under the guise of abstract universality; and in the process of exportation and promotion, it holds the power of discourse and adjudication to define and interpret them. If the West believes that other countries have "violated" these "universal values," it will use "abstract morality" or "beautiful myths" to contain and suppress them, or even launch wars. The intention is to obtain its own specific interests by relying on so-called abstract "universality." "Universal values" are essentially the ideology of the bourgeoisie and serve "Western-centrism." Their substance is to pursue "particular" interests under the banner of "universality," using "universal" values to mask the essence of their value "outlook."
Chinese-path modernization advocates promoting the common values of all humanity: "peace, development, equity, justice, democracy, and freedom."
The proposal of the common values of all humanity has a profound contemporary background and basis. First, regarding the world, it is the in-depth development of economic globalization. In today's highly developed economic globalization and informatization, a life-and-death pattern of "you are in me and I am in you" has formed among all countries, and the fate of humanity has been irresistibly intertwined. Although countries differ in roads, systems, theories, and cultures, cooperation, win-win results, and mutual benefit have become the goals and pursuits of the majority of countries in their foreign relations. Second, regarding the domestic context, socialism with Chinese characteristics has entered a New Era, and China stands at a new historical starting point to become "strong." Since the 18th National Congress, the CPC Central Committee with Comrade Xi Jinping at its core has stood at the forefront of the times, clearly recognizing the conditions of the Party, the world, and the nation, deeply grasping the trends of world development, and clearly stating that "the Communist Party of China is a political party that seeks happiness for the Chinese people and a political party that struggles for the cause of human progress."
The philosophical foundation of the common values of all humanity is human society rather than civil society. Civil society emphasizes individuals and their material interests, whereas human society emphasizes the species [18]. The common values of all humanity are the common value criteria for human society to handle the relationships between humanity and nature, humanity and society, individuals and others, and the self and the other; they are also the direction of humanity's common efforts.
The common values of all humanity are a relational concept. In the era of the continuous, in-depth development of economic globalization, they are the fundamental value concepts that all countries should follow when handling domestic and international relations, especially relations between states.
In terms of China's foreign relations and relations between states, the common values of all humanity are reflected in the fact that the CPC is not only "a political party that seeks happiness for the Chinese people," but also "a political party that struggles for the cause of human progress." In fact, this is an inherent quality of the CPC as a Marxist party. Seeking progress for humanity is the great ambition of the CPC and the Chinese nation under its leadership. Providing Chinese experience and Chinese solutions, and contributing Chinese wisdom and Chinese strength to world peace, development, and the cause of human progress, is not only a clear demonstration of the CPC's great mission and responsibility but also an important manifestation of the common values of all humanity.
As a value concept, the common values of all humanity are distinct from and superior to Western "universal values." First, their philosophical foundations are different.
The philosophical foundation of "universal values" resides in "subject-object opposition" and "zero-sum gain," whereas the philosophical foundation of the common values of all humanity lies in "subject-subject equality" and "inclusive win-win outcomes." Second, their modes of thinking differ. "Universal values" employ a mode of thinking characterized by "subject-object opposition," while the common values of all humanity utilize an intersubjective mode of thinking that emphasizes "subject-subject equality." That is to say, while this mode of thinking regards oneself as a "subject," it simultaneously treats the counterpart and the other as "subjects." It emphasizes equality between "subjects," asserting that while both parties maintain their own subjectivity, they should also respect one another and seek a basis for cooperation and mutual benefit. Consequently, the common values of all humanity represent a value concept that focuses on equality, emphasizes dialogue, and respects human rights; it is a genuine "intersubjective" mode of thinking. Third, their theoretical substance differs. "Universal values" are essentially bourgeois ideology serving "Western-centrism," whereas the common values of all humanity do not deny differences in civilizations or the diversity of paths. They serve as the spiritual pillar for the Chinese people and indeed people of all countries in the pursuit of development, progress, mutual benefit, and harmonious coexistence. Fourth, their theoretical foundations differ. The theoretical foundation of "universal values" is "Western-centrism," which posits Western civilization as the commanding height of human civilizational development, thereby adopting a "solely-exalted" [19] posture that excludes plurality and insists that all other "backward" nations or ethnicities should follow the Western path of modernization. In contrast, the theoretical foundation of the common values of all humanity is the theory of mutual learning among civilizations. It holds that every country or nation has its own history of development and its own unique civilization, and possesses the right and freedom to choose the path or system suited to its own development. Countries should seek common ground while reserving differences, complement each other's strengths, and pursue common progress through mutual learning. Fifth, their theoretical characteristics differ. "Universal values" possess a strong ideological character; although they played a certain positive role historically, they were later propagated—and even self-proclaimed—as "eternal" theories with universality suitable for all humanity. They even attempt to monopolize international discourse power, forcing other countries or nations to accept their values and denying the legitimate right of other civilizations to exist. Thus, "universal values" carry a strong tendency toward dogmatism and discursive hegemony. The common values of all humanity, through their advocacy of diversity, unity, equality, commonality, inclusiveness, and mutual learning, manifest this truth: there is no universal removed from the particular, and there are no abstract eternal values suitable for all humanity. All value concepts are concrete and historical, and must possess their own realistic cultural carriers. Therefore, one should seek "commonality" or "universality" on the basis of full respect for particularity and difference, and objectively recognize and fully respect the reality and necessity of every civilizational form and value concept. In short, the common values of all humanity "place greater emphasis on the inclusiveness of values in their substantive content, methods of realization, and actual effects." Sixth, their cognitive routes differ. "Universal values" focus on using the general to regulate the particular, taking the general as a premise to normalize the particular. The common values of all humanity focus on moving from the particular to the general, taking the particular as the premise and abstracting the general from the particular. The universality spoken of in "universal values" is an "abstract universality," an external universality that emphasizes only commonality while denying individuality. The common values of all humanity also speak of universality, but it is a "concrete universality." Seventh, their practical orientations differ. In practice, "universal values" have led to Western hegemonism and power politics, the colonialism of certain Western powers, and the predatory expansionist behavior of some Western countries, bringing catastrophic consequences to the people of many countries. Conversely, the common values of all humanity take shape in practice as the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence [20], major-country diplomacy with responsible participation, an open strategy of mutual benefit and win-win results, the grand vision and practical action of building a community with a shared future for humanity, and inclusive win-win outcomes.
The essential characteristics of Chinese-path modernization are the modernization of common prosperity for all, the modernization of harmony between humanity and nature, and the modernization of following the path of peaceful development. Its essential requirements are to promote the building of a community with a shared future for humanity and to create a new form of human civilization, all of which embody the common values of all humanity. The common values of all humanity are distinct from and superior to Western "universal values"; they can be termed "common values for all humankind" and constitute the "value existence" of Chinese-path modernization.
VIII. Human Destiny: Chinese-path Modernization Is Committed to Building a Community with a Shared Future for Humanity
In response to the logic of Western modernization—which was built upon colonial plunder and held that expanding hegemony was both natural and a "civilizing mission" [21] carried out by divine will—Chinese-path modernization explicitly declares its unwavering commitment to the path of peaceful development and win-win cooperation. It actively builds a community with a shared future for humanity and regards this as one of the essential requirements of Chinese-path modernization. This is both an internal requirement for discarding the dilemma of "Western-centrism" and the necessary road to moving beyond the framework of "Western-centrism." This constitutes the "win-win cooperation" logic of Chinese-path modernization and primarily addresses the question of its "inclusiveness."
One cannot deny the historical contributions of Western modernization. In the long river of human social development, "the bourgeoisie, during its rule of scarce one hundred years, has created more massive and more colossal productive forces than have all preceding generations together." However, entering the 21st century, the entire world has fallen into a profound predicament of "development deficits, peace deficits, governance deficits, and trust deficits." In probing the root causes, if we say that "subject-object opposition"—as the philosophical foundation of "Western-centrism" and Western civilization—is the philosophical root, and liberalism—as the spiritual source of Western civilization—is the root in human nature, then external expansion—as the guide for action in Western civilization—is the institutional root leading to the world's predicament. In short, the philosophical logic, human nature logic, and institutional logic of Western civilization have encountered problems. How do we seek a path for the regeneration of world development? The orientation of human progress, the outcry for world development, and the reconstruction of the international order all call for a new theory of modernization and a new form of human civilization.
"Promoting the building of a community with a shared future for humanity," as one of the essential requirements of Chinese-path modernization, can provide scientific theoretical guidance for solving human development problems and reconstructing the world order. Building a community with a shared future for humanity:
First, it takes a community of interests as its primary content. It advocates and practices a correct outlook on justice and interests [22], commits to dismantling the "Social Darwinist" rules of the world order, actively participates in the reform and development of the global governance system, changes the unjust and irrational existing international order, focuses on building a new type of major-country relations characterized by peaceful coexistence and balanced development, and strengthens the protection of the common interests of developing countries.
Second, it takes a community of values as its value pursuit. It advocates and practices the common values of all humanity—peace, development, equity, justice, democracy, and freedom. It strives to break through the barriers between different social forms in terms of systems and value concepts, rationally manages ideological differences, consolidates value consensus, and strengthens value identity.
Third, it takes a community of development as its practical path. It advocates and practices extensive consultation, joint contribution, and shared benefits. In the practice of modernization, it focuses on making the global "cake" larger through coordination and cooperation. In the distribution of modernization outcomes, it focuses on equal rights, equal opportunities, and equal rules to ensure that the fruits of modernization benefit people of all countries more broadly and fairly. In its mode of thinking, it focuses on win-win, multi-win, and all-win outcomes to discard and transcend zero-sum games, opening a new path for achieving common development through openness.
Fourth, it takes a community of security as its operational guarantee. It advocates and practices common governance, consultation, and coexistence. In the environment of modernization, it transcends and avoids the "Thucydides Trap" [23], which is an inherent part of peaceful development. It strives to build a new type of partnership characterized by mutual respect and win-win cooperation by establishing mechanisms and methods for resolving contradictions and eliminating conflicts.
As a major concept that transcends the "Western-centric" world order and reconstructs a new global landscape, building a community with a shared future for humanity inherently contains the basic interests of modern Chinese civilization—pursuing diversity, equality, inclusiveness, and shared benefits—and demonstrates the world vision of Chinese-path modernization.
The ancient Chinese "Huaxia-centrism" [24] is untenable, and the "Western-centrism" that evolved in the West during the modern era and persists today is also out of step with the trends of the times. Chinese-path modernization is modernization led by the Communist Party of China. As a party that seeks happiness for the Chinese people and rejuvenation for the Chinese nation, the CPC is also a party that seeks progress for humanity and the common good for the world (da tong) [25]. Building a community with a shared future for humanity is a vivid embodiment of the CPC's original aspiration and founding mission. Chinese-path modernization is socialist modernization; scientific socialism advocates standing on the side of the people and humanity, adhering to a path of social development for the freedom and liberation of all mankind. Building a community with a shared future for humanity is a vivid manifestation of the noble pursuit of scientific socialism. Chinese-path modernization is a modernization grown from Chinese soil; fine traditional Chinese culture is the ideological source and spiritual gene of Chinese-path modernization. Building a community with a shared future for humanity is the vivid practice of the unique worldview and civilizational outlook of modern Chinese civilization.
Standing on the commanding heights of human truth and morality, building a community with a shared future for humanity is the "stabilizing anchor" (ding hai shen zhen) [26] for resolving world conflicts and managing state differences. It is the Chinese solution for guiding the direction of economic globalization and building a community with a shared future for humanity. It fundamentally differs from the "civilizing mission" theory of "Western-centrism" and constitutes the "inclusive existence" of Chinese-path modernization.
IX. World Contribution: Chinese-path Modernization Provides a New Choice for Humanity to Achieve Modernization
To defend the global predicament caused by Western modernization, "Western-centrism" strenuously creates and peddles many "beautiful myths," claiming that Western modernization is intended to realize the universal interests of humanity. Chinese-path modernization not only exposes the "savage" genes and logic of Western modernization—realized through war, colonization, and plunder—viewing it as an old path that benefits oneself at the expense of others and is filled with bloody crimes that brought deep suffering to the people of many developing countries, thereby shattering the beautiful myth of "Western-centrism," but also makes a Chinese contribution to the realization of modernization for all humanity.
What can China contribute to the world? This is the question posed by Liang Shuming [27], the British historian Arnold Toynbee, and also a major issue of core concern to Mao Zedong. Liang Shuming and Toynbee once asked: What contribution will China make to the world? Comrade Mao Zedong said that China ought to make a greater contribution to humanity. This New Era is an era of continuously making greater contributions to humanity. Today we can say with confidence: In terms of practice, New Era China has contributed the "Chinese model"—a typical example—for humanity to achieve modernization: namely, Chinese-path modernization.
Chinese-path modernization provides a new choice for humanity to achieve modernization. In the past, it was believed that to modernize, one must follow the sole path of Western modernization. The success of Chinese-path modernization in the world has shattered the myth that "since ancient times there has been only one path up Mount Hua" [28]. It has shown people that for humanity to achieve modernization, "all roads lead to Rome"—that is, there are multiple paths to modernization, and Chinese-path modernization is one of the most important among them.
Chinese-path modernization has created a new form of human civilization. Modern Western civilization once played a positive role in world history, transforming national history into world history. However, ever since the West evolved Western civilization into a monistic "imperial civilization," it has contained genes and logic that alienated it into "savagery." Because its philosophical foundation is "subject-object opposition," this "imperial civilization" has led all of humanity astray and even into an abyss. The new form of human civilization created by Chinese-path modernization is a "humanistic civilization," a "people-oriented civilization," an "all-factor civilization," and a "harmonious and inclusive civilization" based on the philosophical foundation of "subject-subject equality and shared benefits." Such a civilization points toward a bright future for humanity's realization of modernization.
Chinese-path modernization aims to lead a population of over 1.4 billion as a whole into a modern society.
It not only solves the problem of poverty for one-fifth of the world's total population but also provides a vast space for market development for the world; this constitutes a contribution to global survival and an economic contribution. Chinese-path modernization is the modernization of common prosperity for all people; it provides not only a new path for developing countries to move toward modernization but also a new choice for humanity to achieve people-centered modernization. This constitutes a moral contribution and a contribution to global stability. Chinese-path modernization is a modernization in which material and spiritual civilizations are coordinated; it not only promotes the comprehensive and coordinated development of society as a whole but also demonstrates the superiority of the socialist system. This constitutes a developmental contribution and an institutional contribution to the world. Chinese-path modernization is a modernization of harmony between humanity and nature; it not only enables people to work and live in a beautiful environment but also protects the ancestral home of human survival. This constitutes a green contribution and a civilizational contribution to the world. Chinese-path modernization is a modernization that follows the path of peaceful development; it helps not only to safeguard the rights to survival and development of the people in the vast number of developing countries but also to maintain world peace. This constitutes a humanitarian contribution and a contribution to peace. Furthermore, Chinese-path modernization has laid the foundation and provided the cornerstone for the innovative development of 21st-century Marxism; it is the foothold for the innovative development of 21st-century Marxism, which constitutes a theoretical contribution to the world.
These contributions contain the genes and logic of inclusiveness, altruism, equality, unity, harmony, and universal benefit; therefore, Chinese-path modernization can truly create human civilization and a new form of human civilization. Consequently, we must tell the narratives and stories of how Chinese-path modernization provides new choices for humanity to achieve modernization. This can be termed the "Theory of Global Contribution," which is distinguished from the "Beautiful Myth Theory" of "Western-centrism" and constitutes the "global existence" of Chinese-path modernization.
X. Philosophical Foundations: Chinese-path Modernization Advocates a Universalist Philosophy of "Subject-Subject Equality"
Western modernization claims that its model possesses "uniqueness," "universality," and "universal applicability." It relies on the "subject-object opposition" [29] thinking logic grown out of Western metaphysics, particularly the "omnipotent reason" or "absolute spirit" of modern Western philosophy. Addressing the philosophical foundations of Western modernization, "Western-centrism," and "subject-object opposition," Chinese-path modernization emphasizes subjective development, equal development, harmonious development, comprehensive development, and common development. It relies on the "subject-subject equality" and "co-construction and sharing" thinking logic grown out of the "Great Unity of All Under Heaven" [30] and the "Great Harmony Society" [31] of fine traditional Chinese culture, as well as Marx's "true community" and the "association of free individuals." Therefore, the philosophical foundation of Chinese-path modernization is centrally embodied in the dedicated pursuit of "universal subject-subject equality." This is the "philosophical" logic of Chinese-path modernization, primarily answering the question of its "philosophical foundation."
Philosophy is the essence of the spirit of the age. Examining the historical evolution of the three major logics—era, practice, and theory—of the Western modernization era, we see that it focuses on using the rational thinking rule of "the One" to construct a "homogenous" order for the real material world. In the process of world history and the global landscape, it is an indisputable fact that the core concepts and practical movements of world modernization originated in the West, especially in Europe and America. Modernization became a hallmark of civilization and a clinical discourse, and is also inseparable from the historical contributions and civilizational achievements created by Western modernization. It is undeniable that modernization has become a world trend and the common destiny, even the primary choice, of all countries. However, being a "early starter" does not mean being uniquely correct, let alone representing absolute truth; "innate advantages" do not mean that reflection is unnecessary, nor do they represent the only righteous path for humanity. As human society enters the 21st century, particularly with the sharp contrast between the "chaos of the West" and the "governance of China" [32] brought about by the Western modernization model and Chinese-path modernization respectively, Chinese-path modernization has gradually become a cutting-edge force, a new trend, and a new discourse within the global modernization system and pattern.
Based on a profound insight into the historical evolution and realistic context of human civilization, and centering on the correct understanding and systematic grasp of the worldview and methodology contained in the theoretical form of Chinese modernization, Comrade Xi Jinping has emphasized: "Chinese-path modernization is deeply rooted in fine traditional Chinese culture, embodies the advanced nature of scientific socialism, draws on and absorbs all outstanding achievements of human civilization, represents the developmental direction of human civilizational progress, presents a new picture different from the Western modernization model, and is a brand-new form of human civilization." This indicates that, at the level of philosophical foundations, fine traditional Chinese culture—especially Chinese philosophy—can be called a type of "organic holism." It holds that everything in the universe is interdependent and interconnected; every thing manifests its existence and value within its relationship with other things. Thus, a relationship of harmonious coexistence should be established between humanity and nature, between person and person, and between culture and culture.
At the level of the "soul-conduit" [33] of Chinese-path modernization, the advanced nature of scientific socialism lies in its Marxist philosophical basis. While launching a profound critique of the "subject-object opposition" philosophical foundation and thinking logic of Western modernization and "Western-centrism," Marxist philosophy carried out a revolutionary transformation, committing itself to building a "true community" or an "association of free individuals." Its noble historical mission and value pursuit are to criticize and subvert rationalist metaphysics in favor of the materialist conception of history, to criticize and break the logic of capital in favor of the logic of humanism, and to promote the dual liberation of humanity in both spiritual and material terms—writing the liberation of all humanity, the liberation of the proletariat, and the free and comprehensive development of every individual on its banner. From Marxist philosophy to contemporary Chinese Marxist philosophy, the focus has consistently been on constructing a benign order for China’s real society and determining a philosophical basis for it as its foundation.
At the civilizational level of Chinese-path modernization, Western civilization has certainly had a major impact and made historical contributions to the advancement of human progress and civilization. However, Western modernization, anchored in the theoretical and discourse systems of "Western-centrism," inevitably follows the thinking and action logic of "subject-object opposition" and "the subject dominating the object." Consequently, it often uses the name of "civilization" to grandiosely carry out colonial expansion, armed intervention, or regime subversion against so-called "uncivilized" nations or states. Chinese-path modernization, with an open and inclusive civilizational mindset and a posture of co-construction and sharing, emphasizes drawing upon and absorbing all outstanding achievements of human civilization. In terms of essential requirements, the modernization of common prosperity for all people demonstrates "subject-subject equality in developmental outcomes," ensuring through rights and institutions that everyone can enjoy the fruits of development. The modernization of coordinated material and spiritual civilizations signifies "subject-subject equality in developmental opportunities and content," ensuring the harmony of the human body and mind through structural layout. The modernization of harmony between humanity and nature manifests "subject-subject equality in the exchange of matter, information, and energy," ensuring harmonious coexistence through sustainable exchange. The modernization of the path of peaceful development signals that all countries, regardless of strength or size, should have "subject-subject equality in developmental rights, opportunities, and rules," ensuring through rules that every country and nation enjoys developmental sovereignty and opportunity.
Different philosophical foundations or paradigms determine not only the essential differences in the theoretical forms and systems of modernization but also the differences in the realistic movements, practical paths, and historical destinies of the two modernization models. The philosophical paradigm of "universal subject-subject equality" reflects the historical logic of the development of socialism with Chinese characteristics, embodies the realistic logic of Chinese-path modernization's focus on subjectivity, equality, and universal benefit, and demonstrates the theoretical logic of Xi Jinping Thought on Socialism with Chinese Characteristics for a New Era. The philosophical foundation of this theoretical logic is the "universal subject-subject equality" paradigm based on a systems approach. This can be termed the "Theory of Philosophical Foundations," which is distinguished from and superior to the "Subject-Object Opposition Theory" of "Western-centrism," and constitutes the "philosophical existence" of Chinese-path modernization.
In short, the ten major elements elaborated above—"essential characteristics," "civilizational form," "national traits," "for-others nature," "social governance," "people’s standards," "common values," "human destiny," "global contribution," and "philosophical foundations"—are the ten hallmark categories of the theoretical form of Chinese-path modernization. They form an interlocking, progressively deepening, and logically rigorous systemic whole. Not only does this system construct the theoretical form of Chinese-path modernization, but it also demonstrates significant advantages that both distinguish it from and transcend Western modernization and "Western-centrism." Marx pointed out: "When we turn our eyes from the home of bourgeois civilization to the colonies, the extreme hypocrisy and its barbarous nature of bourgeois civilization lie placed before our eyes, turning from its respectable forms in the home-country to its nakedness in the colonies." Chinese-path modernization and its theoretical form not only demonstrate advantages that distinguish it from and transcend Western modernization and "Western-centrism"—breaking out of the framework where "the East is subordinate to the West"—but also use the power of thought to lead the development of Chinese-path modernization in practice. They provide new choices for humanity to achieve modernization and further consolidate the cultural subjectivity of the Chinese nation in ideological and theoretical construction.