Ma Junyi: Establishing a New Culture for the Chinese Nation
I. Introduction The Chinese nation is a resilient nation. Chinese culture has a long history, thriving through the ages with openness and inclusiveness; it is adept at absorbing all excellent cultures and advanced technologies, continuously internalizing, innovating, and developing them. While maintaining its cultural subjectivity, it contributes to the richness and diversity of human culture. Many civilizations in history disappeared due to factors such as geographic shifts, climate change, military conflicts, or cultural invasion. Chinese civilization, however, has endured to this day by virtue of its distinct subjectivity, accompanied by factors such as a relatively stable geographic space, a unified political entity, prosperous and diverse ethnic groups, and faith in the Chinese state. Regarding the characteristics of Chinese civilization, General Secretary Xi Jinping has summarized them as continuity, innovativeness, unity, inclusiveness, and peacefulness. This precise summary also profoundly elucidates the inherent endowments of why Chinese civilization possesses a resilient state of growth—thriving through the ages, united and integrated, inclusive and innovative, and achieving harmony in diversity. These inherent endowments constitute the resilient character of Chinese civilization.
However, the late period of feudal society became the stage where Chinese civilization suffered the greatest impact in history: "the country was humiliated, the people suffered, and civilization was shrouded in dust." Since Western capitalism launched overseas colonization globally, the world pattern has undergone drastic changes. Early-mover capitalist countries altered the developmental trajectory of many nations through colonial aggression and cultural invasion. On one hand, this destroyed their original cultural systems and traditional social structures; on the other hand, it changed their autonomous paths toward endogenous development of modern industry and the transition to a modern state.
In previous research on the theory of the community for the Chinese nation, the academic community has fully studied and summarized how the Communist Party of China (CPC), guided by Marxist ethnic theory and possessing a profound understanding of the reality of China’s ethnic issues, blazed a correct path with Chinese characteristics for resolving ethnic issues. However, there has been less discussion on how the CPC has used the "Two Combinations" [1] to promote the Chinese nation’s path toward modernization, especially the generative logic of the "new culture" of Chinese national modernity, which is of vital importance. "Marxism brought advanced ideological and theoretical concepts to China." How it "activated the genes of Chinese civilization with the light of truth," and how fine traditional Chinese culture in turn enriched the cultural life of Marxism, requires deep excavation from the inherent mechanisms, logic, and evolutionary process of the "Two Combinations." This article selects relevant paths of ideological transition to explore and discuss the early process of establishing a "new culture" and promoting "civilizational progress" during the Chinese nation’s process of self-awakening, examined through the integration of the resilience of Chinese civilization, the Marxist view of civilization, and the philosophical connotations of modernity. Overall, the CPC possesses a clear and firm mission regarding the construction of a new culture, a new society, and a new state for the Chinese nation, and has carried out the great practice of establishing a new culture for the Chinese nation through the "Second Combination."
II. The Modernity Transformation of Civilizational Resilience and the Mission of Rejuvenation Modernity is a philosophical concept containing complex content, and it also largely condenses the common characteristics generated by human society since entering modern history. Because the Industrial Revolution, modern science and technology, and capitalism originated in the West, modernity was stamped with a Western brand. Western philosophers have conducted extensive research on it. In fact, following the global development of modernization, modernity has developed rich connotations worldwide, including in the East. This makes it necessary for us to understand modernity from two aspects: first, the commensurability of modernity; second, the plurality of modernity. The dialectical unity of the commensurability and plurality of modernity conforms to the principles of Marxist dialectical materialism and historical materialism. Marx and Engels explained long ago that the modernization of Western countries would inevitably lead to the modernization of the world. They revealed the defects and crises of modernity determined by the attributes of capitalist society itself, and argued that human society would inevitably move toward socialism and communism amidst high material prosperity and socialized large-scale production. "Marx’s thought on modernity is a holistic theory of modern society, primarily examining the generation, contradictions, and transcendence of modernity through the logic of capital, and opening the path for the construction of socialist modernity by criticizing and transcending capitalism." Marx believed that only upon reaching the stage of a social community based on "the free individuality of individuals" could people truly achieve the unity of certainty and freedom through an "association of free individuals." To a certain extent, this reflects the ideal state in which human society can both achieve modernization and construct a complete modernity while shaking off the defects of modernity.
The great success of China’s socialist modernization demonstrates the civilizational diversity of modernity and the value of the socialist construction of modernity. How did China shape a modernity belonging to Chinese civilization? How is the generative mechanism of the "Two Combinations" manifested in cultural philosophy? In existing theoretical discourse, there are few studies approaching from the perspective of modernity, which prevents us from profoundly understanding the contribution of Chinese-path modernization to modernity. In particular, since modernity serves as a form of cultural discourse power, China cannot "hand it over to others with folded hands" [2]. Rather, we must deeply explore how the inheritance of Marxist thought on modernity and the new culture of the Chinese nation—which contains the resilience of Chinese civilization—were generated. This concerns China’s current modern cultural self-awareness and the new development of Chinese civilization.
From the perspective of historical materialism, it must be acknowledged that modernization possesses early-mover and late-comer characteristics. In their explorations of modernization initiated through imitation and catching up, late-comer modernizing countries face a historical conundrum: they must achieve national independence, self-strengthening, and state modernization while maintaining their own civilizational resilience and transforming it into systemic modernization resilience. This is especially true for a "great historical nation" with an ancient civilization, whose deep-seated mission rationality is to realize modernization in the sense of a "civilizational rejuvenation." This also means the modernization of the state must transform from imitative to constructive and creative in order to achieve steady and sustained progress.
(1) The Late-comer Status and Nationality of the Cultivation of Modernity in Chinese Society The deep connotations and value significance of China’s construction of modernity, in addition to its own characteristics, undoubtedly possess a certain commensurability with the modernity of other countries and regions in the world, including Western countries and regions. This commensurability is manifested in two ways: first, the transformation from traditional civilization to modern civilization, encompassing both material and spiritual levels; second, the transformation from a traditional subject-based state to a modern nation-state or, rather, a people’s state.
However, as a late-comer modern state, China—like most developing countries in the world—did not have a spontaneous or endogenous beginning to its modernity. At the same time, it did not replicate the West; rather, under the impact of Western modernity, it began with imitative construction and eventually moved toward creative generation. The civilizational transformation of late-comer modern countries takes place amidst the perils of external pressure. The sources of modern thought appear as intellectual elites translate and introduce them from outside, spreading them downward through society; meanwhile, the resistance of the masses against the dark reality of semi-colonial and semi-feudal society forms a bottom-up revolutionary momentum. Therefore, all developing countries face the paradox of having to "learn the superior techniques of the barbarians to control the barbarians" [3]: they must learn advanced Western science, technology, and institutional ideas, while also facing domination by colonizers and seeking national liberation. Generally speaking, the path to a modern nation for late-comer modern countries is extremely arduous. In the choice of systems, some developing countries have experienced a process of radical Westernization followed by a return to tradition, after which the two repeatedly contested, finally reaching a state of balanced adjustment.
(2) The Mission and Path Exploration of the Rejuvenation of Chinese Civilization As mentioned above, as a late-comer modern state, although China already possessed the sprouts of capitalism and a commodity economy, it still had its autonomous political and social systems broken by external forces before it consciously sought a path to modernization. China’s "to-do list" for modernity has aspects identical to the West’s, but also its own uniqueness. After the Opium War, China moved from the "All-Under-Heaven" order [4] and feudal dynasties into a world order dominated by Western capitalism. The Chinese nation moved from a "nation-in-itself" to a "nation-for-itself" [5]. This self-awareness included the establishment of a modern rational spirit. The Western rational spirit emphasizes the individual, while the East, especially China, emphasizes collective rationality. With the successive development of the "Westernization Movement," the "Hundred Days' Reform," the "Xinhai Revolution," and the "New Culture Movement," amidst the self-awareness of collective rationality, China shifted from the self-sufficiency and self-consistency of a traditional ethical state to exploring major issues concerning the survival, direction, and rejuvenation of its own civilization within the new world order, thereby forming a modern rational reflection. Overall, this can be summarized in the following aspects:
Reconstructing the relationship between civilizational resilience and the construction of Chinese modernity. China did not spontaneously experience a long period of endogenous capitalist development to form an awakening of modernity; rather, it underwent rapid adjustment under external pressure. Therefore, the relational rationality of Chinese modernity is reflected in two aspects: first, the re-cognition of external relations under a changing new view of time and space; second, the rethinking and integration of internal relations under the cognition of the new external situation. Facing the crisis of Chinese civilization, the nation, and the state during the "great changes unseen in three thousand years," [6] Chinese people emerged from the dream of the "All-Under-Heaven" system’s view of time, space, and order to rediscover their relationship with the world and to form a rational cognition and reconstruction of their own positioning. In 1898, the "Map of the Current Situation" created by Tse Tsan-tai vividly described the perilous environment of China at that time, surrounded by the Great Powers. Due to the confidence and strength forged by the glorious achievements of Chinese civilization in history, although the recognition of the Western colonizers’ "sturdy ships and effective cannons"—their leading industrial science and technology—highlighted China’s own lag and gap, forming a profound impact on national self-esteem, the national spirit produced by this civilizational resilience ensured that even when Chinese people clearly recognized the crisis they faced, they always maintained the horizon of their own civilization. Therefore, after "opening one’s eyes to see the world" [7] at the dawn of modernity, except for a minority who held theories of pessimism or civilizational extinction, people of insight in China positioned themselves through "the rejuvenation of Chinese culture" and "the rejuvenation of Chinese civilization." Without a doubt, "rejuvenating China" and "national rejuvenation" have been the most fervent dreams of the Chinese people of all ethnic groups in modern times. From Sun Yat-sen proposing "invigorating China" in 1894, to Liang Qichao’s "Young China" in 1900, to Li Dazhao proposing the "rebirth of the Chinese nation" around the "May Fourth Movement," countless people with lofty ideals have struggled tirelessly for this cause. This shows that during the low ebb when the Chinese nation faced internal troubles and external aggression, it was all the more necessary to reconstruct national self-esteem and draw inexhaustible momentum from fine traditional Chinese culture and civilizational characteristics. This civilizational confidence and resilience empowered the establishment of China’s relational rationality at that time, enabling Chinese people to fully realize that externally, they must strive for self-strengthening and rise up, maneuvering among various forces in international relations to safeguard the survival space of the Chinese nation; and internally, they must promote the united struggle of all ethnic groups, social strata, and political parties.
The collective remodeling of civilizational resilience and the construction of Chinese modernity. From its inception, the construction of Chinese modernity has possessed a strong collective rationality; or rather, China’s modernity was generated in the form of collective self-awareness. Behind this lies a direct connection to the unity, continuity, and inclusiveness of Chinese civilization. Faith in the continuity and unity of one’s own civilization, the sense of responsibility in Confucian culture, collectivist ethics, the holistic view of destiny regarding "family-state-under-heaven," and a sense of mission—all these have meant that the modernity of the Chinese nation has not primarily manifested as the rationality of individualism or individual freedom, but rather as a strong collectivist orientation. This also explains why, under the impact of modernization and colonialism, although people of insight from all walks of life responded with different paths and concepts, political party organizations seeking a path to modernization through the holism of the nation and state grew rapidly and received a strong response from the masses. This also constitutes the foundation of the resilient civilizational self-awareness and stability of the Chinese nation as a modern community. However, the construction of this "national" collective consciousness has also followed different theoretical paths. Attempting to construct a national collective rationality by imitating the Western model of "one nation, one state" has, in fact, proven inconsistent with the resilience of Chinese civilization.
Civilizational resilience and the mission-based renewal of the construction of Chinese modernity. The reason the Chinese civilization has flourished without end and possesses prominent continuity is that a strong sense of Chinese identity and Chinese belief has been formed throughout thousands of years of history. This also manifests as a strong sense of mission. This sense of mission is expressed in two aspects: first, the preservation of "Great Unity" [8] characterized by the ideas that "culture must not be severed, the national territory must not be divided, and the ethnic groups must not be scattered"; second, a sense of mission derived from "people-as-the-base" [9] thought, which aims to "plead for the people's lives" [10] and "rescue the people from fire and water." The mission-based rationality of Chinese modernity is centrally embodied in powerful missions such as "saving the nation and preserving the race" and the "rise of China." The slogan "Rejuvenate China" (振兴中华) was first proposed by Mr. Sun Yat-sen in the 1894 "Manifesto of the Xingzhonghui" (Society for Regenerating China). Since then, most patriotic individuals have taken this as their lifelong goal of struggle. It can be said that every revolutionary struggle in China thereafter has been for the sake of rejuvenating the Chinese nation; every progress and achievement made has been driven and inspired by it.
Civilizational resilience and the cultural transformation of the construction of Chinese modernity. As a country with a strong humanistic color, China's shaping of modernity is accompanied by a re-reflection on its own cultural system and the generation of new cultural content. The construction of Chinese modernity combines the existing characteristics of Chinese civilization, presenting indigenous civilizational features. For example, Chinese modernity continues to exhibit the collectivity and sense of mission of traditional Chinese civilization, which are actually closely related to characteristics such as the unity, continuity, and inclusiveness of traditional Chinese civilization. This also explains why the modernity of the Chinese nation possesses the characteristic of collective self-awareness, through which the modern construction of the Chinese nation has become the most core content and carrier for the generation of Chinese modernity. This is reflected not only in the generation of the modern concept of the Chinese nation but also in the proactive exploration and positioning of the new culture of the Chinese nation under the guidance of Marxist theory. Civilizational resilience—the strong sense of national community and collective mission in "saving the nation and preserving the race," and the capacity to embrace and innovate upon foreign ideas while internalizing them into its own development—provided the spiritual impetus and philosophical fertile soil for the generation of the nationality of Chinese modernity and the modern development of Chinese civilization.
III. The New Culture Movement Promotes the New Civilizational Awakening of the Chinese Nation through the Marxist View of Civilization
Although the Self-Strengthening Movement, the Reform Movement of 1898, and the Revolution of 1911 were dedicated to China moving toward modernization, they could not change the semi-colonial and semi-feudal nature of Chinese society. The imitation of Western capitalism—from technology and institutions to culture—never brought about an ideological breakthrough capable of achieving national liberation and rejuvenation. It was not until the October Revolution brought Marxism that the New Culture Movement was led toward the transformation of the thinking of the Chinese nation and a new civilizational awakening.
(1) The New Culture Movement and the Introduction of the Marxist View of Civilization
The New Culture Movement was an ideological liberation movement initiated by some progressive Chinese intellectuals in the early 20th century to oppose feudalism. Its basic slogans were to support "Mr. Democracy" and "Mr. Science." The advocates of the New Culture Movement utilized evolutionary perspectives and ideas of individual liberation to vigorously promote new morality against old morality, and new literature against the classical literary language. "The salvos of the October Revolution brought us Marxism-Leninism." In its later stages, the New Culture Movement entered a new phase of propagating the October Revolution and Marxism. The cultural and revolutionary baptism of the New Culture Movement and the May Fourth Movement gradually established the correct direction for the development of the Chinese nation's modernity. Li Dazhao was the first to raise the great banner of Marxism on Chinese soil, writing articles such as "The Victory of the Common People" and "My Marxist View." Under the influence of the "May Fourth" spirit, the New Culture Movement further enabled Marxist theory to be widely disseminated among intellectual and scholarly circles. Within this, the Marxist view of civilization clarified the relationship between modern civilization and bourgeois civilization, pointed out the path for the nationality of modernity in developing countries, and cleared the ideological fog for the construction of the modern civilization of the Chinese nation, providing the correct direction and holding great significance for the construction of China's modern civilization.
First, from the perspective of Marx’s discourses on civilization, he acknowledged civilization in a broad sense. Regarding the material and spiritual culture created by humanity at different historical stages following the stage of barbarism, he referred to them as civilization: "The particular division of labor between town and country is a direct result of the transition from barbarism to civilization, from the tribe to the State, from locality to nation, and it runs through the whole history of civilization to the present day." On this basis, he emphasized the full development of commodity production based on the division of labor and exchange as an element of the "era of civilization": "The civilization stage is that stage of social development at which the division of labor, the resulting exchange between individuals, and commodity production, which combines the two, reach their full development and completely revolutionize the whole of the earlier society."
Second, Marx fully affirmed the tremendous changes brought to the world by capitalist industrial civilization, highly evaluating its breakthrough significance for the productive forces and relations of production, as well as its historical progressive significance: "Only capital creates bourgeois society and the universal appropriation of nature and of social connections themselves by the members of society... Hence the great civilizing influence of capital."
Third, Marx also conducted a profound critique of the predatory nature of bourgeois civilization: "All progress in civilization, or in other words, every increase in the social productive forces (or the productive forces of labor itself)—such as science, inventions, the division and combination of labor, improvements in means of communication, the opening of world markets, machinery, etc.—will not enrich the worker, but only capital; it will only increase the power that governs labor, only increase the productive power of capital. Because capital is the opposite of the worker, the progress of civilization only increases the objective power over labor." Here, "civilization" undoubtedly refers specifically to bourgeois civilization. Marx also pointed out: "When we turn our eyes from the home of bourgeois civilization to the colonies, the extreme hypocrisy and its inherent barbarism of bourgeois civilization lie stripped before our eyes, turning from its respectable forms in the home-country to its nakedness in the colonies," criticizing the essential hypocrisy and barbarity displayed by bourgeois civilization in the colonies.
In summary, "civilization" in classical Marxist works carries both a broad meaning and a specific reference to bourgeois civilization. It affirms the historical progressive significance of bourgeois civilization while conducting a profound critique of its barbarity, hypocrisy, and exploitative nature.
(2) Establishing a Modernity that Incorporates the Resilience of Chinese Civilization under the Guidance of the Marxist View of Civilization
First, Marxist theory provided the Communist Party of China (CPC) with theoretical guidance for establishing a profound relational rationality. Facing the international order and deep logic dominated by modern Western capitalist countries, the CPC, based on the Marxist view of civilization, possessed a clear awareness of the nature of Western bourgeois civilization and a deeper understanding of the contradictions faced in the internal and external relations of the Chinese nation. Guided by Marxist theory and closely integrating characteristics such as the unity and continuity of Chinese civilization, the Party formulated the principles for the path of the Chinese revolution: namely, they must completely abandon all illusions about imperialism and recognize the weakness of the bourgeoisie; by relying on the proletariat and uniting the various ethnic groups within the country to overthrow imperialism, feudalism, and bureaucrat-capitalism, the Chinese nation could move completely toward liberation and onto a path of independent and self-reliant modernization. The formation and maturation of the relational rationality of Chinese modernity was also a process of the gradual maturation of the concept and theory of the Chinese nation. This was reflected in the deepening of discussions such as "The Chinese Nation is One" [11]. At a time when the intellectual world urgently needed a theoretical consensus, the CPC, with Comrade Mao Zedong as its core, proposed the theory of the Chinese nation based on the guidance of Marxist ethnic theory and on the basis of long-term, in-depth investigations into the realities of China’s ethnic issues. The CPC's concept of the Chinese nation—that "China is a great national-state" and "the Chinese nation is composed of various ethnic groups"—represents the establishment of a profound modern national relational rationality that accords with the characteristics of Chinese civilization.
Second, in the West, the modern construction of the "nation" is the historical path for the state to move toward modernity and the carrier for the generation of collective rationality. In a large Eastern country with a long civilization and a history as a unified multi-ethnic state, the transformation and construction of the traditional ethnic groups into a modern "nation" [12] carries the composite function of continuing and evolving traditional collective identity while building modern collective rationality. Its prominent manifestation is the modern rational transformation of "Great Unity" and the replacement of Western "nationalist movements" with national liberation movements. Guided by Marxist theory and inheriting the traditions of "Great Unity" and inclusiveness from Chinese civilization, the CPC is committed to building a true community of the Chinese nation based on the masses of the people and the equality and unity of all ethnic groups, rather than a national community dominated by the bourgeoisie. Under the leadership of the CPC, the forms of modern transformation for the "Great Unity" tradition progressed through stages: the equality and unity of all ethnic groups in the New Democratic Revolution, the promotion of the Chinese People’s United Front Against Japanese Aggression, the implementation of the system of regional ethnic autonomy, and the establishment of a unified multi-ethnic modern state. The CPC's path for the modern construction of the collective rationality of the Chinese nation is the national liberation movement rather than the nationalist movement. The "Resolution on the National Revolutionary Movement" passed at the Fourth National Congress of the CPC pointed out that although nationalist movements possess the revolutionary character of "resisting foreign imperialist aggression against one's own nation," they also "oppress the domestic proletariat in the name of defending national interests" and "oppress weaker nations in the name of defending the glory of one's own nation." In contrast, national liberation movements possess both a class nature and a global nature; the CPC was to participate in the national liberation movement rather than the nationalist movement. Qu Qiubai [13] once pointed out that the Kuomintang's policy "uses patriarchal and feudal methods to combine the Chinese gentry, landlords, and bourgeoisie into a national race (国族), in the name of promoting nationalist spirit and inherent patriarchal morality," the essence of which was to "assimilate the Mongol, Manchu, Hui, and Tibetan ethnic groups into the Han, in order to create the national race of the Republic of China." Since ancient times, China has possessed people-as-the-base thought, and Chinese civilization is inclusive; Marxism also contains ideas of ethnic equality. The collective rationality constructed through the path of national liberation movements is more consistent with the resilience of Chinese civilization, laying a deep foundation of civilizational resilience and a broad prospect for rejuvenation for the modern construction of the Chinese nation.
Third, the CPC's mission-based rationality for the modernity of the Chinese nation has continuously developed and matured, focusing on the "Great Rejuvenation of the Chinese Nation." The early Marxist Li Dazhao, in "The Mission of the Morning Bell" (1916) and "New Nationalism of the Chinese Nation" (1917), proposed the "recreation of the Chinese state" and the "revival of the Chinese nation," which were the earliest discourses and slogans regarding national rejuvenation proposed by the CPC. Regarding mission-based rationality, the CPC possesses a steadfast mission of national independence, people's liberation, and the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation. This is reflected in the thoroughness of its anti-imperialism, a point that was clarified when the CPC first used the term "nation/nationality" (民族). Article 9 of the "Program of the Chinese Women's Association" in November 1921 stated: "On the grounds of the right to national survival, we must struggle against the aggression of foreign imperialists." General Secretary Xi Jinping summarized: "As soon as it was born, the Communist Party of China established its original aspiration and founding mission to seek happiness for the Chinese people and rejuvenation for the Chinese nation. All the struggles, sacrifices, and creations of the CPC in uniting and leading the Chinese people over the past century can be summarized as one theme: realizing the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation." In October 2017, the report to the 19th National Congress of the CPC pointed out that as soon as the Party was established, it "shouldered the historical mission of realizing the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation without looking back."
Fourth, regarding cultural transformation, the New Culture Movement advocated for cultural popularization and the Vernacular Chinese Movement, promoting the democratization of culture and transforming the elite, refined culture of the feudal aristocracy into a culture that the masses and the people "love to see and hear" [14]. Early leaders of the Communist Party of China (CPC) possessed a comprehensive understanding of culture. Qu Qiubai [15] pointed out: "What is called 'culture' is the sum of all 'doings' of humanity. First, the state of the productive forces; second, the economic relations achieved based on this state; third, the socio-political organization formed upon these economic relations; fourth, the social psychology determined by the economic and socio-political organization, and the various systems of thought that reflect this social psychology. All of these are the 'doings' of humanity within a certain time and space; this sequence is objectively necessary... If one studies culture by knowing only 'lofty and profound' thoughts, it is no different from the 'handstand' [16] posture where the head and feet are reversed; it will surely lead to dizziness and clouded vision." Compared to the "lofty and profound" view of culture revered by the ruling classes in the feudal era, Qu Qiubai's understanding of culture, recognized from the perspective of the entire nation and society, possessed the comprehensive significance of "civilizational achievement." This provided the cognitive foundation for Chinese culture to move "from tradition to modernity."
Furthermore, the Vernacular Chinese Movement was an important path for promoting the establishment of a new cultural rationality, manifested in: first, serving as a channel for the dissemination of the new culture; second, becoming a medium for the new spirit of the Chinese nation; and third, acting as a communal "catalyst" for the emotional communication, ideological cohesion, and unified action necessary to broadly unite the people of all ethnic groups across the country against feudalism, bureaucratic capital, and imperialism. In short, the new cultural rationality promoted the construction of a new society for the Chinese nation with the people of all ethnic groups as the main body.
In summary, based on a profound civilizational resilience and during a critical historical period concerning the survival of Chinese civilization, the Chinese people engaged in arduous exploration to continue their civilization and seek national rebirth from adversity. Chinese Communists, utilizing the philosophical outlook of historical materialism and dialectical materialism, inherited the traditions of "exalting justice, valuing harmony, and seeking Great Harmony" [17]. They committed themselves to the reconstruction of relationships, collective reshaping, the renewal of mission, and cultural transformation for the Chinese nation, which constituted the deep underlying foundation for the beginning of Chinese modernity. Consequently, the national character of this modernity was centrally expressed through patriotism and progressivism. Under the leadership of the CPC, highlighting the inclusive and innovative characteristics of Chinese civilization and creatively integrating the Marxist modern civilizational outlook with the deep layers of Chinese culture, the nation forged a path of modernity with Chinese characteristics.
IV. The CPC's Shaping of a New Culture for the Chinese Nation
The core issue since the beginning of the modern era has been what kind of new society, new state, and modern China the Chinese nation should build. The CPC inherited the thoughts on civilization from classical Marxist writers and, on this basis, conducted profound reflections on how to construct a new culture for modern China. The CPC is committed to transforming a China that was politically oppressed and economically exploited into a China that is politically free and economically prosperous. Therefore, establishing a new culture for the Chinese nation was determined and required by the establishment of a New China; it was the objective of the New China in the cultural sphere. Under the guidance of historical materialism and dialectical materialism, the Party affirmed the continuity of modern China with historical China and the ancient civilization of the Chinese nation. Furthermore, it promoted social revolution and cultural innovation, firmly believing that while an ignorant and backward China was ruled by the old culture, a civilized and advanced China must be ruled by a new culture that is "national, scientific, and for the masses."
(1) The CPC’s Establishment of the Modernity Goal of a "Civilized and Advanced New China" Under the "Two Combinations"
Since the Revolution of 1911, creating a modern China has been the common pursuit of both the Kuomintang and the CPC, as well as people of insight. Transitioning from an ancient civilization to a modern one required a transformation and reinvention of the state system, the mode of production, and national culture. The bourgeois revolutionaries primarily transplanted or imitated Western capitalist nation-states in terms of political systems, modes of production, and ideology. The CPC’s understanding of how to establish a new state and a new society differed from that of the bourgeois revolutionaries. This is because the CPC was guided by Marxist theory, allowing it to recognize bourgeois modern civilization objectively, dialectically, and comprehensively—acknowledging its historical progressiveness while maintaining a profound awareness of its exploitative and barbaric nature. Guided by Marxist theory, the CPC chose socialist theory and combined it with the civilizational qualities of China. By constructing Chinese modernity through relationship reconstruction, collective reshaping, the renewal of mission, and cultural transformation, it led China toward a path with Chinese characteristics distinct from Western nation-states. Among these factors, the compatibility and organic integration of Marxist theory and socialist thought with the resilience of Chinese civilization formed the meaning and value of the new development of the Chinese nation's civilization. This constituted the philosophical foundation and value core of the Chinese nation’s theoretical self-awareness and its subjective path as a community. Because it was guided by Marxist theory, the CPC maintained a clear understanding of the reality and future of the Chinese nation and Chinese civilization, as well as a profound realization of the incompleteness of the bourgeois revolution. This determined that its revolutionary policy and goals were to establish a new society and state for the Chinese nation—distinct from capitalist countries—and specifically, it held firm propositions regarding the new culture such a state required.
The CPC, along with other political parties and personages from all walks of life, recognized that the Chinese nation was in a semi-colonial and semi-feudal state. At the same time, under the guidance of Marxist theory, it realized that the Chinese nation, like many oppressed small and weak nations, was under the oppression of the global colonial system. Domestically, the various ethnic groups composing the Chinese nation were similarly situated within this system; therefore, it was necessary to unite and combine all forces against imperialism. Regarding the line of national revolution, the CPC recognized ethnic equality and the right to ethnic autonomy, enabling various ethnic groups to become firm and self-reliant forces, thereby carrying out the national revolution on the basis of the great unity of the Chinese nation. After the outbreak of the War of Resistance Against Japanese Aggression, the CPC's rational summation of the internal and external relations of the Chinese nation established the correct modern connotation of the Chinese nation in one stroke. Combining Marxism with the civilizational resilience of "continuity," "unity," and "inclusivity" formed throughout Chinese history was reflected in several points of consensus. For example: "Today's China is a development of historical China; we are Marxist historicists, and we should not cut ourselves off from history." China is a country with a large population formed by the combination of many ethnic groups and is one of the countries where world civilization developed earliest. "The Chinese nation is also a nation with a glorious revolutionary tradition and a fine historical heritage," demonstrating the inheritance of the history and excellent cultural heritage of China as a unified multi-ethnic state. Externally, it firmly and thoroughly opposed imperialism and pursued national liberation; internally, it implemented policies of ethnic equality and ethnic unity. The CPC did not transplant the modern nation-building methods of Western nation-states. Instead, based on civilizational resilience, it profoundly constructed the internal and external relations, collective consciousness, mission pursuit, and cultural forms of the Chinese nation, laying the foundation for the modernity of the Chinese nation. As General Secretary Xi Jinping stated: "The Chinese nation has its own unique history. In analyzing the history of the Chinese nation, one cannot mechanically apply Western ethnic theories. To build the theoretical system for the community of the Chinese nation, we must stand on the long history of the Chinese nation and combine the Marxist theory on ethnicities with China's specific realities and with fine traditional Chinese culture."
The CPC also possessed a clear and firm mission regarding what kind of new culture, new society, and new state it would build for the Chinese nation. Mao Zedong pointed out: "We want not only to change a China that is politically oppressed and economically exploited into a China that is politically free and economically prosperous but also to change a China which is being kept ignorant and backward under the sway of the old culture into a China that may be kept enlightened and progressive under the sway of a new culture. In short, we want to build a New China. To build a new culture of the Chinese nation—that is our aim in the cultural sphere."
(2) Establishing a National, Scientific, and Mass New Culture of the Chinese nation
The May Fourth Movement was a key period in which the new culture of the Chinese nation found its correct direction. Since the Opium War, China's intellectual and political circles, based on relational, collective, and mission-driven rationality, proposed the goal of "rejuvenating China" [18], striving to construct a new culture and find the correct path for the Chinese revolution. Neither the Westernizers [19], the Reformers, nor the Restorationists found a real way out. Qu Qiubai said: "Since the twentieth century, material civilization has developed to the point of being riddled with a hundred diseases. The 'question of civilization' is no longer merely discussed in books; it is actually being resolved by the proletarian socialist movement." He further stated: "Only through world revolution can the Eastern nations avoid the calamity of colonization and properly apply science for the benefit of the majority of the working people, thereby breaking the vestiges of the patriarchal social and feudal systems. Only then can true cultural development be achieved... Therefore, we must use the methods of correct social science and natural science, for the benefit of the working people, and apply them to actual movements... This is the only way toward a new culture."
Consequently, Mao Zedong summarized that "on the Chinese cultural or ideological front, the periods before and after the May Fourth Movement constitute two different historical periods." The modern Chinese culture originating from the May Fourth Movement "can only be led by the cultural thought of the proletariat, that is, communist thought; the cultural thought of any other class can no longer lead."
Mao Zedong also profoundly, systematically, and clearly discussed the construction of a national, scientific, and mass new culture. He explicitly stated: "This New Democratic culture is national... It joins with the socialist and New Democratic cultures of all other nations and establishes a relationship of mutual absorption and development, jointly forming the new culture of the world; but it can never join with the imperialist reactionary culture of any other nation, because our culture is a revolutionary national culture. China should absorb a great deal of foreign progressive culture as raw material for its own cultural food; this work has been done insufficiently in the past... Chinese culture should have its own form, namely, a national form. National in form and New Democratic in content—this is our new culture today." "This New Democratic culture is scientific. It is opposed to all feudal and superstitious ideas; it stands for seeking truth from facts, for objective truth, and for the unity of theory and practice." "This New Democratic culture is for the masses and is therefore democratic. It should serve the more than 90 percent of the laboring masses of workers and peasants throughout the nation and gradually become their own culture... Revolutionary culture is a powerful weapon for the masses of the people... Any progressive cultural worker in the War of Resistance must have his own cultural army, and that army is the masses of the people. A revolutionary cultural worker who does not approach the masses is a 'commander without troops,' and his firepower cannot bring down the enemy. To achieve this end, written language must be reformed under certain conditions, and speech must be close to that of the people; it must be understood that the people are the inexhaustible source of revolutionary culture."
Mao Zedong incisively summarized: "A national, scientific, and mass culture is the anti-imperialist and anti-feudal culture of the masses of the people; it is New Democratic culture; it is the new culture of the Chinese nation." The line for the new Chinese culture during the New Democratic Revolution period became the general policy for cultural construction under the CPC’s leadership and the guiding ideology for the literary and artistic front. In 1942, Mao Zedong published his "Talks at the Yan'an Forum on Literature and Art," proposing that literature and art must serve the broad masses. He pointed out that the life of the people is the inexhaustible and peerless source of literary and artistic creation, emphasizing that such creation cannot be divorced from the masses; it must reflect reality and serve revolutionary reality. These "Talks" became "the programmatic document for Chinese literary and artistic construction from the 20th century to the present, changing the direction of Chinese art in the latter half of the century."
After the founding of the People’s Republic of China, socialist cultural construction achieved great successes. The national, scientific, and mass culture proposed by the first generation of the Party leadership, represented by Comrade Mao Zedong, has always been the principle followed in cultural construction. Since the beginning of reform and opening up, Western culture and various types of cultural products from countries and regions around the world have entered China on an unprecedented scale. The cultures of various regions and ethnic groups have also become more prosperous, with a higher frequency and greater depth of interaction and exchange. The cultural industry within the socialist market economy has shown unprecedented prosperity. The state consistently persists in the Party's correct leadership and management of cultural development and the direction of literature and art. This has both energized the cultural market and satisfied the spiritual needs of the broad masses for cultural products, while maintaining the subjectivity of Chinese culture, reflecting the positive significance of promoting cultural construction for the building of socialist spiritual civilization.
V. Conclusion
Over the past century, the Communist Party of China has forged ahead with determination and continuous innovation, transforming the landscape of the state and society while simultaneously shaping a new culture for the Chinese nation. While China’s modernization drive has achieved immense success, it currently faces new challenges. The new culture of the Chinese nation has made great strides, yet it remains on a journey toward the new development of Chinese civilization. This new development of Chinese civilization is a historical necessity—one in which the Chinese nation, alongside the advancement of Chinese-path modernization, imbues modernity with Chinese wisdom. It also encompasses the complexity and exploratory nature of establishing the theoretical, discourisal, and practical rationality of the Chinese nation’s modernity in the face of international competition. The "great changes unseen in three thousand years" [20] and the "great changes unseen in a century" [21] describe our current historical coordinates. In terms of the modern development of the Chinese nation, categories such as relationships, collectivity, mission, and culture are once again facing turbulent new challenges and require further evolution.
At this new historical juncture, the thought and practice of Xi Jinping Thought on Socialism with Chinese Characteristics for a New Era have strengthened the construction of the Chinese nation’s internal and external relations, the consolidation of collective consciousness, the mobilization of the mission of rejuvenation, and the elevation of cultural identity. This process has advanced the construction of Chinese-path modernization and deepened the enrichment and development of the connotations of modernity by Chinese culture. First, it has constructed a self-awareness of relationships in the New Era. By profoundly analyzing the current internal and external environment of the Chinese nation within the context of the great changes unseen in a century, it proposes the strengthening of the "Five Identifications" [22] domestically, alongside a series of viewpoints centered on the Community of the Chinese Nation. This advances the construction of the Community of the Chinese Nation and enhances the cohesion of the Chinese nation and society. Internationally, through the Belt and Road Initiative, it provides public goods to the international community, extensively promotes mutually beneficial cultural exchanges and economic cooperation, and proposes and practices the concept of a community with a shared future for humanity, shaping the image of a responsible major power. Second, it constructs a collective consciousness for the Chinese nation in the New Era, proposing that the forging of the sense of community for the Chinese nation must serve as the main thread to promote the high-quality development of ethnic work in the New Era, solidifying this consciousness across the whole of society. Third, it constructs a new map for the mission of the Chinese nation in the New Era, proposing the realization of the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation through Chinese-path modernization. Finally, it constructs a blueprint for the development of Chinese culture in the New Era, promoting a new self-awareness and development of civilization. General Secretary Xi Jinping has put forward a series of important expositions on cultural development and the construction of civilization, profoundly clarifying the significance of socialist culture with Chinese characteristics—composed of fine traditional Chinese culture, revolutionary culture, and advanced socialist culture. He has pointed out that "cultural identity is the deepest level of identity" and proposed the construction of a shared spiritual home for the Chinese nation, as well as the promotion of the modernization of culture through creative transformation and innovative development. General Secretary Xi Jinping has delivered important speeches at various conferences regarding ethnic and religious work, the united front, philosophy and social sciences, ideological and propaganda work, and cultural inheritance and development. This series of important expositions has become the guiding ideology for the new development of contemporary Chinese civilization.
As early as the period of the New Democratic Revolution [23], Chinese Communists made it clear that modern Chinese culture could only be led by proletarian cultural thought—namely, communist thought. The "Second Combination" [24] explains the most robust civilizational genes, philosophical foundations, and developmental logic of Chinese-path modernization. Examined from the perspective of civilizational resilience and under the path of the "Two Combinations," the Communist Party of China has not only led the Chinese people in building a New China and a new society for the Chinese nation, but has also established a new culture for the Chinese nation, continuously shaping a more "civilized and progressive" modern China. The progress of this civilization lies in its modernity, nationality, people-centered character, democracy, and innovativeness.
Within the horizon of the "Two Combinations," the subjectivity of Chinese culture has been consistently reaffirmed in modern China. Amidst reform and opening up, modernization, and mutual learning between civilizations, it will not move toward Western-style modernization or cultural Westernization, nor will it retreat into "archaisim" (fugu zhuanyi) [25]. Instead, it maintains the "national, scientific, and mass-based" [26] new culture of the Chinese nation as its essential characteristic. It continuously undergoes creative transformation and innovative development, persistently imbuing modernity with the wisdom of Chinese civilization and providing a new form for the development of human civilization.