Ni Suxiang: On the Thought of "Promoting Benevolence" in Fine Traditional Chinese Culture

General Secretary Xi Jinping, in his speech while presiding over the 13th collective study session of the Political Bureau of the 18th CPC Central Committee, pointed out that we must "deeply excavate and elucidate the contemporary value of the concepts of advocating benevolence (ren’ai), prioritizing the people (zhongben), maintaining integrity (shouchengxin), upholding justice (chongzhengyi), valuing harmony (shanghehe), and seeking the Great Unity (qiudadong) in fine traditional Chinese culture, so as to make fine traditional Chinese culture an important source for nourishing Socialist Core Values." "Benevolence" is the core thought of fine traditional Chinese culture and the most concentrated expression of the essence of Chinese civilization. In the long history of Chinese culture, "advocating benevolence" not only possesses a profound theoretical background and a process of evolutionary development, but has also formed a rich ideological connotation.

I. The Theoretical Basis of "Advocating Benevolence"

The Shuowen Jiezi ^[1] explains "benevolence" (ren): "Intimacy. Composed of 'man' and 'two.'" From an etymological perspective, the character "仁" (ren) can be decomposed into the characters for "man" or "person" (人, ren) and "two" (二, er). Here, "man" refers to the self, and "two" refers to the other; thus, ren is both the basis for what makes a person human and the basic moral law regulating social interaction between oneself and others. In traditional Chinese culture, ren is not only manifested as an awakening of "human" consciousness and the respect and kind treatment of life, but also as a representation of the vital connection between "heaven, earth, self, others, and things." Confucius explicitly proposed ren as the core of the civilization of rites and music, defining ren as "loving others." Consequently, the thought of "benevolence" became a vital component of fine traditional Chinese moral culture, laying the cultural and spiritual foundation for the Chinese nation's qualities of friendliness, kindness, and peace. This thought also inaugurated the tradition of "advocating benevolence"—that is, esteeming and practicing benevolence. In the developmental course of Chinese civilization, "advocating benevolence" has not only accumulated deep practical roots but also contains a profound theoretical logic.

(1) The Ontological Basis of the "Unity of Heaven and Man"

The thought of the "Unity of Heaven and Man" (tianren heyi) ^[2] has a long history in traditional Chinese culture and constitutes the core content of the Chinese nation's worldview. As early as the Western Zhou period ^[3], "Heaven" (tian) exhibited multiple meanings: it referred to the natural heaven, the volitional heaven capable of rewarding good and punishing evil, and, more importantly, the moral heaven that establishes ethical standards. During this period, building on the relationship between heaven and man (namely, the relationship between god and man) inherited from the Shang Dynasty, "Heaven" was endowed with the moral attribute of "revering virtue and protecting the people" (jingde baomin). This ensured that the preferences of "Heaven" were consistent with those of the "people," thereby forming a cognitive system connecting "Heaven’s mandate" with "human affairs." The initial sprouts of the "Unity of Heaven and Man" emerged here. The Book of Documents (Shangshu) ^[4] in the "Great Declaration, Part II" records: "Heaven sees as my people see; Heaven hears as my people hear." The "Counsels of Gao Yao" in the same text states: "Heaven’s intelligence and discernment are manifested through the intelligence and discernment of our people. Heaven’s brightness and awesomeness are manifested through the brightness and awesomeness of our people. Let those who possess the land be reverent in these matters of the high and the low." These all express the concept of the unity of the Way of Heaven and the will of the people. The "Announcement of Duke Shao" records: "I dare not say that the Yin [Shang] received the mandate of Heaven for a fixed number of years; I dare not say that it could not have been extended. It was because they did not reverently attend to their virtue that they prematurely let fall their mandate." The underlying idea of "matching Heaven with virtue" (yide peitian) also reflects the "Unity of Heaven and Man" in a moral sense.

On this basis, the Daoists, Confucians, and other schools during the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods ^[5] further interpreted the relationship between heaven and man. Laozi, the representative of Daoism, argued for the "Unity of Heaven and Man" in a metaphysical sense, noting that "The Way of Heaven has no favorites; it is always with the good man"—meaning the "personalized heaven" or "volitional heaven" is one with human virtuous conduct. Zhuangzi, another Daoist representative, developed this thought from the perspective that "things are neither noble nor base" and that "all things are one." As stated in the "Adjustment of Controversies" (Qiwu lun): "Heaven and earth were born together with me, and the myriad things and I are one," referring to the integration of man with the nature of heaven, earth, and all things. This concept of the correspondence between heaven and man, constructed by Daoism in a metaphysical sense, provided a theoretical basis for its ideas of treasuring life and loving the self with kindness.

The Confucian school similarly advocated for the interconnectedness and interactive relationship between heaven and man. Confucius believed that "Heaven" was an external, irresistible "personalized god" with a sacred will; therefore, Heaven is the highest existence for man, as in "Heaven produced the virtue that is in me." At the same time, Confucius emphasized human agency, believing that through the moral practice of doing good and acting with benevolence, one could reach a state of unity with Heaven: "To subdue oneself and return to propriety is benevolence. If a man can for one week subdue himself and return to propriety, all under heaven will ascribe benevolence to him. Is the practice of benevolence from a man himself, or is it from others?" Mencius also discussed the "Unity of Heaven and Man" within the connotation of a moralized heaven: "He who exhausts his mind knows his nature. Knowing his nature, he knows Heaven." The connection between human nature and Heaven lies in the fact that "nature" is "what Heaven has given to me." The morality of "Heaven" is consistent with the benevolent and good nature of "man." Thus, Mencius established the ontological basis for "advocating benevolence" through the idea that "all things are complete within me."

By the Song and Ming dynasties ^[6], the Confucian thought of the "Unity of Heaven and Man" developed into the idea that man and the myriad things of heaven and earth form one body, establishing the ontological foundation for advocating "benevolence." Zhang Zai said, "That which fills the universe, I regard as my body; that which directs the universe, I consider as my nature. All people are my brothers and sisters, and all things are my companions." He added, "The Confucian reaches sincerity through enlightenment, and enlightenment through sincerity; thus, Heaven and man are one." The benevolent thought proposed by Zhang Zai—that all people are one’s compatriots and all things are one’s friends—was no longer a blood-based love starting from "affection for kin" (qinqin), but a universal love rooted in the "Unity of Heaven and Man" as an ontology. Cheng Hao also explicitly stated, "The student must first recognize benevolence. The benevolent man is integrally one with all things. Righteousness, propriety, wisdom, and faithfulness are all benevolence." That is, "The benevolent man regards heaven, earth, and the myriad things as one body; there is nothing that is not himself," further elevating "benevolence" to an existential height. Wang Yangming was the great synthesizer of the "Unity of Heaven and Man" thought. He believed, "The great man’s ability to regard heaven, earth, and the myriad things as one body is not a matter of intentionality; it is because the benevolence of his mind is fundamentally like this." He proposed "attaining my benevolence of one body (yiti zhiren), after which my 'illustrious virtue' will truly be bright, and I will truly be able to form one body with heaven, earth, and the myriad things." Wang Yangming’s view of "benevolence as one body" provided a further ontological argument for "advocating benevolence." At this point, "Confucius’s 'graded love' (chadeng zhiai), developed by Mencius into the Neo-Confucianism of the Song and Ming, especially Wang Yangming’s thought of 'benevolence' as the 'unity of all things,' allowed graded love to combine with universal love (bo'ai). This greatly developed Confucius’s thought and elevated the Confucian moral outlook to a new height. This was the peak of the development of the 'Unity of Heaven and Man' and best represents the essence of Confucian moral thought," constructing a complete ontological basis for "advocating benevolence."

(2) The Human Nature Basis of the "Original Goodness of Human Nature"

The tradition of the theory of the goodness of nature (xing shan), initiated by Confucius and synthesized by Mencius, is the foundation of "advocating benevolence" in terms of human nature. The Analects (Yang Huo) records: "The Master said: 'By nature, men are nearly alike; by practice, they get to be wide apart.'" Confucius believed "human nature" was similar but did not explicitly state whether it was good or evil; thus, one cannot conclude from this sentence alone that Confucius advocated the theory of the goodness of nature. However, combined with his other assertions, one can find a tendency toward this theory, such as "Only the highest of the wise and the lowest of the stupid do not change" and "Those who are born with the possession of knowledge are the highest class of men. Those who learn, and so, readily, get possession of knowledge, are the next. Those who are dull and stupid, and yet compass the learning, are another class next to these. As to those who are dull and stupid and yet do not learn—they are the lowest of the people." From this, we see that Confucius highly appreciated and affirmed the innate "highest wisdom" and those who "are born with knowledge." Furthermore, Confucius believed that certain qualities of "benevolence" existed in human nature, proposing, "Is benevolence so far away? If I desire benevolence, then benevolence arrives." This explains that benevolent virtue exists within the person; the key to determining whether a person advocates benevolence lies in the subject's own virtuous actions. If one is willing to do benevolent things, one will achieve benevolence. Thus, Confucius was full of expectation and affirmation for human nature, showing a tendency toward the theory of original goodness.

Mencius sought to excavate the "original goodness of human nature" within Confucius’s thought, constructing a relatively complete system of the theory of good nature to provide a solid theoretical cornerstone for "advocating benevolence." The Mencius (Gaozi I) records: "Gaozi said, 'Nature is neither good nor bad.' Others say, 'Nature may be made to practice good, and it may be made to practice evil...' Others say, 'The nature of some is good, and the nature of others is bad...' Now you say, 'Nature is good.' Then are all those wrong?" From this passage, we see there were already three representative theories of human nature: that it is neither good nor evil, that it can become good or evil, and that it is a mixture of good and evil. Mencius criticized these views and explicitly proposed that nature is good: "As far as what is inherent is concerned, it can become good. This is what I mean by calling it good. As for its becoming not good, this is not the fault of its endowment. The feeling of commiseration belongs to all men; so does that of shame and dislike; and that of reverence and respect; and that of approving and disapproving." His conclusion was: "The tendency of man’s nature to good is like the tendency of water to flow downwards. There are none but have this tendency to good, just as all water flows downwards." "The reason why I say that all men have a mind which cannot bear to see the sufferings of others is this: even nowadays, if men suddenly see a child about to fall into a well, they will without exception experience a feeling of alarm and distress." Mencius believed that the innate feeling of commiseration is the source of "benevolence," providing a basis in human nature for "advocating benevolence."

Contrary to Mencius, Xunzi proposed the "theory of evil nature" (xing e). Explaining the connotation of "nature" (xing), Xunzi believed "Nature is the original primitive material" and "That which is so by birth is called nature"—meaning nature refers to man's instinctual and original essence. To this end, he opposed Mencius’s theory, pointing out: "Mencius says: 'The nature of man is good.' I say: This is not so. He does not understand the nature of man, nor does he examine the distinction between nature and conscious activity (wei). Nature is what is given by Heaven; it cannot be learned, it cannot be worked at... That which is in man and cannot be learned or worked at is called nature. That in man which can be learned and achieved through work is called conscious activity. This is the distinction between nature and conscious activity." He concluded: "It is clear that the nature of man is evil; his goodness is the result of conscious activity." Although Xunzi believed "The nature of man is such that he is born with a love of profit," he nonetheless proposed a path of moral transformation: "The sage transforms his nature and initiates conscious activity; from this conscious activity, propriety and righteousness are produced." Although Xunzi’s advocacy for elevating morality through education and legal systems shared commonalities with broader Confucianism, his claim of evil nature contradicted the Confucian position of good nature and was thus criticized by the later "Orthodox Succession of the Way" (daotong) ^[7]. Zhu Xi believed "Xun Qing [Xunzi] is entirely like Shen and Han" ^[8], and Cheng Yi believed "Xunzi is extremely biased; with the single sentence 'nature is evil,' the great foundation is already lost." With the critique of Xunzi’s theory by the daotong, the theory of good nature advocated by Mencius became the mainstream of Chinese theories of nature for the following 2,000 years, serving as the primary basis for "advocating benevolence." Mencius’s advocacy focused on the essential distinction between humans and animals, emphasizing the moral nature of being human, whereas Xunzi’s theory was based on the biological commonalities between humans and animals. The two had fundamental differences in their starting points. The theory of evil nature in Western traditional culture also argues from biological instinct, which possesses its own theoretical rationality. However, from the moral dimension of what it means to be human, the advocacy of good nature is more conducive to the ethical requirements of "advocating benevolence." Consequently, the view that human nature is fundamentally good became easily accepted, leading to the logical derivation that "to be a person" (ren 人) is "to be benevolent" (ren 仁).

(3) The Methodological Basis of "Extending Oneself to Others"

As for how to "speak of benevolence" and propagate it, "extending oneself to others" is the most effective practical principle. The idea of extending oneself to others originates from Confucius, who first understood himself through the lens of observing human nature. The Analects (Wei Ling Gong) records: "Zi Gong asked: 'Is there one word that one can act upon throughout one's entire life?' The Master said: 'It is perhaps "reciprocity" (shu ^[9])! What you do not wish for yourself, do not impose upon others.'" "Reciprocity" refers to deducing one's attitude and behavior toward others from one's own position; there is a passive element to extending oneself to others here—that is, not imposing what one dislikes on others. In the process of promoting benevolence, Confucius also proposed an important principle: "loyalty" (zhong ^[10]). The Analects (Li Ren) records: "The Master said: 'Shen! My Way is bound together by one thread.' Zeng Zi replied: 'Yes.' After the Master left, the other disciples asked: 'What did he mean?' Zeng Zi said: 'The Master's Way is simply loyalty and reciprocity.'" The Shuowen Jiezi ^[11] explains: "Loyalty means reverence. It is derived from the 'heart' radical and the phonetic 'middle'." Duan Yucai noted: "Devoting one's heart is called loyalty." Zhu Xi explained "loyalty" as "exhausting oneself" and "reciprocity" as "extending oneself." "Exhausting oneself" is what Confucius meant by: "The benevolent man, wishing to establish himself, seeks also to establish others; wishing to be prominent himself, seeks also to help others be prominent. To be able to judge of others by what is nigh in ourselves—this may be called the method of benevolence." This concept—that to establish one's own footing one must allow others to do the same, and to achieve one's own success one must help others succeed—is "extending oneself to others" in the active sense. From a methodological perspective, "extending oneself to others" means comparing one's heart to another's, putting oneself in their shoes, and perspective-taking; it means knowing how to avoid "un-benevolent" acts from one's own perspective, while also knowing how to promote the realization of "benevolence" by standing in the position of others. Mencius inherited Confucius’s thought on "extending oneself to others," saying: "That which made the ancients far surpass other men was nothing else than this: they were good at extending what they did." This refers to "treating the aged in one's own family as they should be treated, and extending this to the aged of other families; treating the young in one's own family as they should be treated, and extending this to the young of other families." In essence, it is "merely taking this heart and applying it to others," extending and expanding one's own good nature and benevolent heart into others and society. Consequently, the Western Jin Confucian scholar Fu Xuan summarized: "Thus, the benevolent one is he who extends himself to others." Zhang Zai also said: "To love others with the heart that loves oneself is to fulfill benevolence," and "The Way of Benevolence has a root; taking an example from what is near one's person and extending it to others—this is its method." Zhu Xi remarked: "That which reciprocity applies is the application of love; without reciprocity, though there be love, it cannot reach others," and "Scholars, regarding loyalty and reciprocity, cannot avoid comparing self and other, extending themselves to others." These all apply the method and principle of extending oneself to others to the process of "speaking of benevolence," driving the transition from speaking of benevolence to practicing it.

The establishment of the theoretical foundation for "speaking of benevolence" provided a solid bedrock for the development and practice of the ideology.

II. The Historical Evolution of "Speaking of Benevolence"

Throughout the historical development of traditional Chinese culture, "speaking of benevolence" has been an essential tradition. The Book of Documents (Shangshu) records: "I am as benevolent as my ancestors" and "Though one has many close relatives, they are not equal to a benevolent man," marking the emergence of the concept of ren (benevolence). In the Zuo Zhuan, the character ren appears 33 times, asserting that "not turning one's back on one's roots is benevolence." In The Analects, ren is mentioned as many as 109 times, sufficient to demonstrate its importance. The tradition of "speaking of benevolence" has been passed down like a torch through the long river of history, with its ideological connotations continuously enriched and deepened as the eras progressed.

(1) The Initial Formation of Benevolence Ideology

As an excellent cultural tradition of the Chinese nation, the spirit of benevolence is centrally embodied in awe for life, respect for others, and the pursuit of the Way of Goodness. This spirit is not only a vital component of traditional Chinese moral culture but also the cultural source and spiritual foundation that forged the Chinese nation’s character of friendliness, kindness, and peace. The interpretations of "benevolence" by various Pre-Qin schools represent the sign of the formation of "benevolence" ideology and the beginning of "speaking of benevolence."

The Daoists differed from the Confucians; they spoke of "benevolence" more in the sense of "goodness" (shan) and "compassion" (ci), opposing hypocritical "benevolence and righteousness" (renyi). Laozi believed: "The Sage has no constant heart; he takes the heart of the people as his own. Those who are good, I treat with goodness; those who are not good, I also treat with goodness; thus virtue is goodness." This means the Sage has no selfish heart but takes the will of the people as his own. Therefore, he advocated: "I do nothing and the people transform themselves; I love stillness and the people correct themselves; I take no action and the people become prosperous; I have no desires and the people become simple." The Daoist advocacy of "governance through non-action" (wuwei erzhi) was not an opposition to "achievement" as such, but an opposition to reckless actions that violate natural laws. Daoism maintained an affirmative attitude toward "good benevolence" that accords with human and natural tendencies, while opposing the hypocritical "benevolence, righteousness, and wisdom" that transcends human nature. They argued that only by abandoning false benevolence and righteousness could the people return to authentic filial piety and compassion—that is, "Abandon sagehood and discard wisdom, and the people will benefit a hundredfold; abandon benevolence and discard righteousness, and the people will return to filial piety and compassion; abandon cleverness and discard profit, and there will be no thieves or robbers." At the same time, he believed it was precisely because the "Great Way" was discarded that hypocrisy, "benevolence and righteousness," and discord among the six relations appeared, necessitating calls for filial piety and compassion—namely, "When the Great Way is discarded, there are benevolence and righteousness; when wisdom appears, there is great hypocrisy; when the six relations are at odds, there are filial piety and compassion; when the state is in disorder, there are loyal ministers." While Laozi held a critical attitude toward "benevolence" as a social norm, his "speaking of benevolence" in the sense of championing the goodness of non-action and the benevolence of nature remains valuable. Yang Zhu’s doctrine of "self-love" similarly originated from Laozi’s natural Way. Yang Zhu opposed Mozi’s "universal love" (jian’ai), advocating for "valuing life" (guisheng) and "esteeming the self" (zhongji), emphasizing the preservation of individual life. Although no specialized monographs of Yang Zhu's thoughts have survived, his ideas are preserved in the Liezi (Yang Zhu chapter) with commentary by Zhang Zhan of the Eastern Jin. According to the record: "Qin Zi asked Yang Zhu: 'If plucking a single hair from your body could benefit the whole world, would you do it?' Yang Zhu said: 'The world is certainly not something to be benefited by a single hair.' Qin Zi said: 'Supposing it could, would you do it?' Yang Zhu did not answer. Qin Zi went out and told Meng Sunyang. Meng Sunyang said: 'You do not understand the Master’s heart; let me explain. If by bruising your skin you could gain ten thousand pieces of gold, would you do it?' He said: 'I would.' Meng Sunyang said: 'If by cutting off one of your limbs you could gain a kingdom, would you do it?' Qin Zi was silent for a while. Meng Sunyang said: 'A hair is smaller than the skin; the skin is smaller than a limb—this is clear. Yet hairs accumulate to form the skin, and skin accumulates to form a limb. A single hair is one part in ten thousand of the whole body; how can one treat it lightly?'" and "The ancients would not give a single hair to benefit the world, nor would they take the whole world to serve themselves. If everyone does not harm a single hair, and everyone does not benefit the world, the world will be well-governed." From this perspective, Yang Zhu's thought cannot be simply reduced to extreme egoism. From the fragments of his thought, we can see its profound side: that individuals have their own rights, that they can and should master their own destinies rather than being manipulated by others, and that society cannot rely on sacrificing the interests of one group to fulfill those of another. However, Mencius clearly failed to see this profound side of Yang Zhu’s thought, seeing only its "self-interest" and "selfishness," and thus opposed the Yang school. Mencius believed: "Yang Zhu chooses 'for oneself'; though pulling out a single hair might benefit the whole world, he would not do it," and "Yang's 'for oneself' is to acknowledge no sovereign; to acknowledge no father and no sovereign is to be a beast." Due to this Confucian opposition, the idea of self-love failed to become the mainstream of traditional culture. Yet one cannot therefore deny the significance of the ideas of self-love and valuing the self. From the perspective of intellectual history, these ideas, like the concepts of benevolence, are important components of traditional Chinese moral culture.

Confucius, representing the Confucians, explicitly proposed the idea of "speaking of benevolence." Confucius believed: "To restrain oneself and return to the rites is benevolence (ren). If for one day a man can restrain himself and return to the rites, all under heaven will ascribe benevolence to him." Therefore, to achieve "benevolence," one must first "cultivate the self" (xiushen): "If the will be set on benevolence, there will be no practice of wickedness." The concrete manifestation of "benevolence" is "love": "Fan Chi asked about benevolence. The Master said: 'To love others.'" Thus, "benevolent love" (ren'ai) became the moral quality most esteemed and emphasized by Confucians. As for how to achieve benevolence, Confucius advocated starting from "filial piety and fraternal duty" (xiaoti)—cultivating "benevolence" beginning with "filial love for kin," which is "extending oneself to others." However, Confucius did not let "speaking of benevolence" remain solely at the level of blood relations, but pushed "love for kin" toward "loving others" and "loving the masses broadly." "A youth, when at home, should be filial, and, abroad, respectful to his elders... he should overflow in love to all (fan’ai zhong), and cultivate the friendship of the good." In expanding benevolence, Mencius, like Confucius, emphasized proceeding from the intimate to the distant and from the near to the far, advocating that "love has gradations" (ai you chadeng) and its "application begins with kin." Mencius believed: "Affection for parents is benevolence," and "The benevolent man leaves nothing unloved, but he makes it his urgent business to cultivate affection for the kin and the worthy," and "In his relation to things, the superior man is loving but not benevolent (ren); in his relation to the people, he is benevolent but not affectionate (qin). He is affectionate to his parents and benevolent to the people; he is benevolent to the people and loving to things." Toward all things, the superior man is loving but does not reach the level of "benevolence," whereas toward the people, the superior man treats them with a benevolent heart; meanwhile, "benevolent love" is extended from the intimate to the distant—to others—and then from loving others to loving all things. It can be said that this cognitive paradigm and behavioral norm of extending oneself to others is the most effective method for individuals to achieve virtuous deeds and moral excellence.

Distinct from the Confucians, the Mohists believed that "speaking of benevolence" required "universal love" (jian xiang’ai), and they opposed the idea of graded love. Jian means "comprehensive" or "simultaneous"; "universal love" refers to a pervasive, undifferentiated love—that is, loving everyone without distinction. "Therefore, when he sees his friend, if he is hungry, he feeds him; if he is cold, he clothes him; if he is sick, he attends to him; if he is dead, he buries him. The words of a universalist are thus, and his actions are thus." Conversely, "The words of a partialist are: 'How can I treat my friend's person as I would my own? Treating my friend's parents as mine?' Therefore, when he sees his friend hungry he does not feed him, cold he does not clothe him, sick he does not attend him, dead he does not bury him"—this was considered a manifestation of "un-benevolence." The Confucians, who advocated graded love, were called "partialists" by Mozi, who argued that their proposition could never achieve a true love for all people. Thus, Mozi advocated replacing specific "partial love" with "universal love" (jian'ai), believing that "universality is benevolence and righteousness." Mozi’s thought on universal love contained elements of philanthropia and represented an awareness of the lower classes striving for equality. However, because he "spoke of benevolence" from the perspective of "universal love," his thought became overly idealized, turning into a moral fantasy that could not be realized in the society of that time. To this end, Mencius, as a representative of the "partialists," countered the Mohist critique and continued to insist on graded love. While he noted that the society of the time was such that "the words of Yang Zhu and Mo Di fill the world; the talk of the world goes either to Yang or to Mo," he also affirmed Mozi’s personal character, noting that "Mozi loved universally; if by wearing himself out from head to foot he could benefit the world, he would do it." Yet he opposed the Mohist proposition, arguing that "Mo's 'universal love' is to acknowledge no father." Mencius (Teng Wen Gong I) also records a theoretical confrontation between Mencius and the Mohist disciple Yi Zhi: "Yi Zi said: 'According to the Way of the Confucians, the ancients acted as if they were protecting a newborn babe—what does this mean? I take it to mean that love has no gradations, but its application begins with one's parents.' Xu Zi told this to Mencius. Mencius said: 'Does Yi Zi truly believe that a man's affection for his brother's child is the same as his affection for his neighbor's newborn? ... Moreover, Heaven, in the production of things, has given them but one root, while Yi Zi gives them two roots.'" Mencius argued that a passerby saving a child falling into a well is not due to "love without gradations" but due to a "feeling of commiseration" (ceyin zhi xin); a person’s love for their own nephew and a neighbor’s child must be different, which is "graded love." Mencius’s criticism of the Mohist school, on the one hand, revealed the theoretical flaw in "universal love" that ignored human ethical gradations, and on the other hand, once again demonstrated the feasibility of the Confucian ideology of "speaking of benevolence."

(2) The Rich Development of Benevolence Ideology

The Confucian ideology of "speaking of benevolence," interpreted by scholars of the Han and Tang dynasties and developing into the Neo-Confucianism of the Song and Ming dynasties, further became the most important intellectual concept in traditional Chinese culture.

In the Han dynasty, Dong Zhongshu emphasized "speaking of benevolence," believing: "The benevolent man is pained by the suffering of others and loves them; he is cautious, harmonious, and does not contend; his likes and dislikes are centered on human relations; he has no heart for harm or evil, no will for hidden jealousy, no spirit of envy, no desire for sorrow, no treacherous affairs, and no perverse conduct." However, Dong Zhongshu attributed the interpretation of "speaking of benevolence" to "Heaven," emphasizing that "the beauty of benevolence lies in Heaven; Heaven is benevolence," and using "telepathic resonance between Heaven and humanity" (tianren ganying) ^[12] to explain "benevolence." Though Dong Zhongshu’s theory—that "the Three Bonds of the Kingly Way can be sought in Heaven"—established an ontological basis for the concept of "benevolent love," it was not particularly esteemed by subsequent generations of Confucian scholars. Han Yu, a Tang dynasty Confucian, proposed in The Original Way (Yuan Dao): "Universal love is called benevolence; to act as is appropriate is called righteousness; to follow this path is called the Way; to be sufficient in oneself without depending on the outside is called virtue." Expanding benevolence to "universal love" (bo'ai ^[13]) was both an inheritance and a development of Confucian thought, providing a reference and inspiration for Song and Ming Neo-Confucianists to rethink "speaking of benevolence."

Building on the foundation of Han and Tang Dynasty Confucian perspectives on "advocating benevolence" (讲仁爱), the Song and Ming Neo-Confucians proposed the concept that "benevolence" (ren 仁) is "life-giving" (sheng 生). They argued that individuals must deeply reflect on their own moral cultivation to harmonize with the life-order of the universe, thereby manifesting the existential meaning of human life. Thus, the "advocating benevolence" found in the Neo-Confucianism of the Song and Ming Dynasties contains both an affirmation of the primordial state of human life and an ultimate pursuit of the state of human perfection. Zhang Zai ^[14] held that "the Heavens embody all things without omission, just as benevolence embodies all affairs without exception." He stated: "Nature is the single source of all things; it is not a private possession. Only the Great Man can fully realize its Way; therefore, he establishes others as he establishes himself, knows all extensively, loves all universally, and completes nothing for himself alone." Benevolence and love are not only a unity of Heaven and humanity; to achieve harmony between man and the Mandate of Heaven, one must move toward goodness and seek benevolence. On this basis, Zhang proposed the concept of "people as my siblings and things as my peers" (minbao wuyu ^[15]), insisting on starting from "differentiated love" (bie'ai) and extending it to "universal love" (jian'ai). He noted: "To desire to give extensively and assist the masses, to expand this to the world and apply it endlessly, requires the talent of a sage to promote the Way." Cheng Hao and Cheng Yi also believed that the growth of all things constitutes "benevolence": "The life-pulse (shengyi) of the myriad things is most worth observing; this yuan [primacy] is the chief of goodness, and this is what is called benevolence." For a person to act with "benevolence" is to align with the "Way" (dao): "Benevolence is principle (li). Humans are things. When benevolence is integrated into the human body, it is the Way of Man." Furthermore, Cheng Yi opposed Han Yu’s view that "universal love is what is called benevolence," arguing that "love" cannot be simply equated with "benevolence." He distinguished between the two, positing that "benevolence" is the substance (ben-ti ^[16]) or "nature" (xing), while "love" is the function (gong-yong) or "emotion" (qing). He explained: "The Way of Benevolence can be summarized by the single word 'impartiality' (gong). Impartiality is the principle of benevolence; one cannot call impartiality itself benevolence. It becomes benevolence only when a human person embodies it through impartiality. By being impartial, one treats both the self and things with equal light; thus comes benevolence, the ability to extend empathy (shu), and the ability to love. Empathy is the application of benevolence, and love is its function." Cheng Yi’s distinction between substance and function in the concept of "benevolence and love" re-established the ontological status of "benevolence."

Building on this, Zhu Xi pointed out that "benevolence is the heart of Heaven and Earth to produce things," "the meaning of life is benevolence," and "benevolence is the virtue of the heart and the principle of love; righteousness is the constraint of the heart and the appropriateness of affairs." The core of benevolence is "affection for kin, benevolence toward the people, and love for things—these three are the affairs of benevolence. Affection for kin is the first affair." He argued: "From affection for kin to benevolence toward the people, and from benevolence toward the people to love for things, there are gradations in love and a sequence in its application; yet the Way of Benevolence is life-generating and inexhaustible." Clearly, Zhu Xi still advocated that love has gradations. Wang Yangming also believed that "the Great Man’s ability to form one body with Heaven, Earth, and the myriad things is not a matter of intention; the benevolence of his heart is naturally so." While Wang advocated loving "the myriad things," he also maintained that the implementation of "benevolence and love" involves degrees of intimacy. He said: "One loves both animals and plants. Yet if one uses plants to feed animals, can the heart endure it? [Yes.] One loves both humans and animals. Yet if one slaughters animals to nourish parents, provide for sacrifices, or entertain guests, can the heart endure it? [Yes.] One loves both close kin and strangers. If there is a bowl of rice or a bowl of soup, such that getting it means life and not getting it means death, and one cannot save both, if one saves the kin rather than the stranger, can the heart endure it? [Yes.] This is because principle dictates it should be so." He further noted: "By treating my own father as a father, and extending this to the fathers of others and the fathers of the whole world, my benevolence truly forms one body with my father, the fathers of others, and the fathers of the world; only when I truly form one body with them does the 'illustrious virtue' of filial piety begin to shine!" "The love between father and son, brother and brother, is the starting point of the life-pulse of the human heart, like the sprouts of a tree. Moving from here to benevolence toward the people and love for things is like the growth of the trunk, branches, and leaves. Mozi’s 'universal love without gradations' treats one's own father and son like a person on the street; this eliminates the starting point. When there are no sprouts, one knows there are no roots, and there is no continuous generation of life—how can that be called benevolence? Filial piety and fraternal duty are the roots of benevolence, which means the principle of benevolence originates from within."

When the Confucian school speaks of advocating benevolence, the emphasis is on moving from the near to the distant and acknowledging that love has gradations. This cannot be simply equated with a theoretical defense of the patriarchal blood-tie system, nor should it be reduced to an ideological tool for the ruling class. Compared to "universal love" (jian'ai) which relies on conviction and will, or "philanthropy" (bo'ai) which relies on faith and institutions, the Confucian "differentiated love" (bie'ai) was more feasible under the historical conditions of the time. For example, in modern society, the rescue of "strangers" can be undertaken by social organizations and charitable institutions; however, in ancient societies with imperfect social mechanisms, the Confucian practical wisdom of "extending from oneself to others" (tui ji ji ren) was more effective at solving relief problems than vague slogans of "universal love." From the Pre-Qin period to the Song and Ming dynasties, Confucians primarily explored how to "advocate benevolence" from the perspective of the individual. They did not oppose the beautiful ideals of "universal love" or "philanthropy," and they advocated loving the myriad things; they simply believed that to realize beautiful ideals, one must be pragmatic and observe human nature. Only when love has a sequence can it be put into practice.

3. The Modern Transformation of Benevolence Thought With the development of the times and the Enlightenment, the advocacy of benevolence underwent new trends and ideological shifts in the modern era. Gong Zizhen ^[17] recognized the importance of individual interests through social change and gained a deeper understanding of the concepts of self-love and partiality. He argued that "Heavens have partiality" and "Earth has partiality." He asked profoundly: "Regarding the sage-emperors and wise-queens... if we investigate the reality of what they did, was it not merely saying: 'protect my descendants, preserve my state'? Why did they not love the states of others, but love their own state? Why did they not protect the descendants of others, but protect their own?... Why does a loyal official not show loyalty to the ruler of others, but to his own ruler? Why does a filial son not show kindness to the parents of others, but to his own?" At the same time, he inherited the Confucian "advocating benevolence" thought, hoping that rulers would implement "benevolent governance" (renzheng): "Take the benevolent heart as the substance and apply it to governance." Kang Youwei ^[18] argued that the realization of "benevolence" is limited by social conditions; only in a society of universal equality can "universal love" be achieved. That is: "In an age of disorder, benevolence cannot reach far, so one only loves kin; in an age of emerging peace, benevolence reaches one's own kind, so one can be benevolent to the people; in an age of ultimate peace, all living beings are as one, thus one can universally love all things." Tan Sitong ^[19], while inheriting Confucian thought, proposed an innovative "Philosophy of Benevolence" (renxue), advocating for equality between self and others, and between things and self. He held that "Benevolence is the function of the ether, from which Heaven, Earth, and the myriad things are born and through which they communicate," and "the sign of communication is equality." The reflections on "advocating benevolence" by thinkers during the Enlightenment period reflected the transformation and innovation of traditional benevolence thought against the backdrop of the struggle for national salvation.

"The Philosophy of Benevolence, revealed by Confucius and brought together with East and West by Tan Sitong, has continued for two thousand years without interruption." Advocating benevolence and establishing oneself to help others establish themselves is not only a core component of several thousand years of fine traditional Chinese culture but also the cultural backdrop of the Chinese Communists' adherence to their original aspiration and founding mission for over a century. In his speech at the ceremony marking the 100th anniversary of the founding of the Communist Party of China, General Secretary Xi Jinping pointed out: "As soon as the Communist Party of China was born, it established the quest for happiness for the Chinese people and the rejuvenation of the Chinese nation as its original aspiration and founding mission." For over a century, the CPC has consistently committed itself to seeking progress for humanity and the Great Harmony (datong ^[20]) for the world. This is both a contemporary practice of the thought of "advocating benevolence" and a manifestation of tireless efforts and contributions toward the creative transformation and innovative development of "advocating benevolence."

III. The Rich Core of "Advocating Benevolence" The ideological system of "advocating benevolence" formed in the long river of Chinese civilization still holds positive contemporary value in the New Era. Systematically elucidating the deep meaning of this tradition and promoting the innovative development of the traditional view of benevolence plays an important practical role in inheriting the spirit of benevolence. "Advocating benevolence" fuses the essence of various schools of traditional Chinese thought; it is at once the essence of traditional Chinese morality, the core of Chinese culture, a realistic portrayal of the CPC’s century-long quest for the people’s happiness, and an important innovation sublimated into the governing philosophy of Chinese-path modernization in the New Era.

(1) From the perspective of the individual, "advocating benevolence" requires "loving all living beings extensively" (fan'ai qunsheng) As the primary content of advocating benevolence, "loving all living beings extensively" advocates for cherishing life and caring for others and all things. First, advocating benevolence includes the ethical foundation of "self-love" (aiji). The "self" is a member of the "masses" (qun); to "love others," one must first know how to "love oneself," only then can one "love the multitude extensively." This is supported by the Daoist view that "the sage knows himself but does not display himself; he loves himself but does not prize himself"; the Mohist view that "the love for oneself is not for the sake of being a person who loves oneself... love has no thick or thin [preference], and thickness does not exclude the self"; the Confucian view that "the wise make others know them, the benevolent make others love them"; Wang Anshi’s view that "loving oneself is the beginning of benevolence, which can be extended to loving others"; Qiu Jun’s Ming Dynasty view that "the greatness of the world is built from the accumulation of individuals... if every person obtains their portion and fulfills their wishes, the world will be at peace"; and Huang Zongxi’s view that "at the beginning of life, each person was for themselves and each person sought their own interest." All these illustrate the importance of individual life and interests, proving that "self-love" is a prerequisite for advocating benevolence. Only when people know their own needs, cherish their own lives, and perfect their own abilities—achieving moral awakening through life experience—can they truly stand on the ground where "humanity" is "benevolence" (ren zhe ren ye). From this position, they can consider and extend the relationships between self and others, self and society, and even humans and nature, doing their utmost to dedicate love to family, others, and society. In the New Era, the CPC consistently adheres to the principle of "Life First" for the masses, believing that "human life is the most precious; life comes but once and cannot be regained." "Life First" centrally embodies the deep tradition of benevolence of the Chinese people and the people-centered value pursuit of Chinese Communists, representing a contemporary inheritance and development of the thought of advocating benevolence.

Second, the specific requirement of advocating benevolence is love for kin. Loving others begins with learning to love family members and those around you: "Are not filial piety and fraternal duty the roots of benevolence?" By extending grace from self-love to loving family and honoring parents, one learns to respect the elderly, care for the young, and be kind to neighbors in social interactions.

Third, extend love for kin to love for others and friends, including strangers. "Therefore, nothing is greater for the benevolent than loving others." "Use benevolence to bring peace to others, and use righteousness to rectify oneself." That is to say, "The benevolence of one person is not as beautiful as the benevolence of a family; the benevolence of a family is not as beautiful as the benevolence of all neighbors; the benevolence of neighbors is not as beautiful as the benevolence of the whole village." "The benevolent person loves others" is also an important source of "friendliness" (youshan), one of the Socialist Core Values. Practicing the thought of benevolence, being kind to others, and caring for them is the proper meaning of Socialist Core Values.

Finally, it means loving all things, including animals and the ecological environment. Confucius required "fishing but not with a net, and not shooting at nesting birds"; Mencius argued that "the gentleman, regarding animals, seeing them alive, cannot bear to see them die." Daoism also advocates caring for nature and all things: "Loving people and benefiting things is what is called benevolence." In the current context of globalization, the urgency of the ecological crisis is becoming increasingly prominent. To this end, General Secretary Xi Jinping attaches great importance to ecological civilization construction, requiring the protection of nature and all things. "'All things live in harmony and grow according to their nourishment.' Chinese civilization has always emphasized the unity of Heaven and humanity and respect for nature." It is evident that the concepts of "loving all living beings extensively" and "forming one body with all things" still hold positive significance today for regulating harmony between people, and between humanity and nature.

(2) From the perspective of the group, "advocating benevolence" requires "the benevolent person to love others"

"A person of ren loves others" ^[21] advocates for mutual assistance and finding joy in helping others. With the development of the social division of labor, the heart of ren and the love of ren have also become moral requirements for various professional groups. Inheriting the essence of traditional culture, "finding joy in helping others" is the manifestation of "a person of ren loves others" within professional ethical norms in the New Era. For groups in different industries, "practicing ren and love" carries more specific requirements.

First, for those in politics, practicing ren and love requires "governing by virtue" ^[22] and "loving the people as one's own children." Confucius said: "To govern is to rectify. If you lead with rectitude, who will dare not to be rectified?" and "He who exercises government by means of his virtue may be compared to the north polar star, which keeps its place and all the stars turn towards it." Mencius also proposed: "He who loves others is constantly loved by them; he who respects others is constantly respected by them," and "If the ruler is ren, all will be ren; if the ruler is righteous, all will be righteous; if the ruler is correct, all will be correct. Once the ruler is rectified, the state will be stable." Liu Xiang ^[23] also appealed: "Those who are good at governing a state treat the people as parents love their children or an elder brother loves his younger brother." All these require political practitioners to cherish the common people, and officials to love the people as their own children. General Secretary Xi Jinping has also issued many instructions on the building of clean government among Party members and cadres, emphasizing: "Party members and cadres, especially leading cadres, must regard the strengthening of moral cultivation as a very important and compulsory life course. They should consciously draw nutrition from excellent traditional Chinese culture, honestly learn from the masses, always strive to emulate those of superior character ^[24], strengthen self-discipline with strict standards, accept external supervision, and strive to win the hearts of the people and achieve professional success through the power of morality." Admonishing Party members and cadres to maintain close ties with the masses and alleviate their sufferings are all manifestations of the "practicing ren and love" thought in the New Era.

Second, for those in education, "a person of ren loves others" means caring for and protecting students. Mencius proposed: "There are those who are transformed by the timely rain; those whose virtue is perfected; those whose talents are developed; those whose questions are answered; and those who learn privately from others. These five are the ways in which the junzi ^[25] teaches." Only by upholding a heart of ren and love can a teacher truly succeed in cultivating a student's virtue and shaping their personality. Yang Xiong ^[26] believed that "a teacher is a model for others," and Han Yu ^[27] stated at the very beginning of On Teaching (Shishuo): "A teacher is one who passes on the Way, imparts professional knowledge, and resolves doubts." As teachers who perform these roles, they must possess love, kindness, and patience. On September 9, 2014, in a speech during a discussion with representatives of teachers and students at Beijing Normal University, General Secretary Xi Jinping pointed out: "To be a good teacher, one must have a heart of ren and love. Education is an undertaking of 'ren and loving others'; love is the soul of education, and without love, there is no education. A good teacher should be a 'Teacher of ren'; a person without a heart of love cannot become a good teacher." On September 9, 2023, in a letter to representatives of outstanding teachers across the country, General Secretary Xi Jinping included "a heart of ren and love that finds joy in teaching and loves students, and is willing to dedicate oneself" as a requirement of the "educator spirit," hoping that teachers would promote and practice it. This further illustrates the importance of a "heart of ren and love" for professional ethical requirements in teaching.

Finally, for medical practitioners, "practicing ren and love" requires "the physician's heart of ren." Sun Simiao ^[28], in his book Great Physicians' Absolute Sincerity (Dayi Jingcheng), wrote: "When seeing the suffering of others, feel as if it were your own; be deeply moved by compassion," and "Without desires or demands, first develop a heart of great mercy and empathy, vowing to save all sentient beings from suffering." Yu Chang, a scholar of Chinese medicine in the early Qing Dynasty, also advocated: "Medicine is the art of ren; a person of ren and a junzi must be profound in their feelings." A doctor's duty is to heal the wounded and rescue the dying; without a heart of ren and love, one cannot fulfill this duty. On March 6, 2021, in a speech while visiting medical, health, and education sector members attending the Fourth Session of the 13th National Committee of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC), General Secretary Xi Jinping pointed out: "The vast number of medical workers should abide by medical ethics, medical style, and the medical Way (dao). They should cultivate medical ethics, practice the art of ren, possess a heart for saving the suffering, be 'Great Physicians of the People' (Cangsheng Dayi), and strive to provide the masses with more high-quality and efficient health services."

Furthermore, for advanced groups in all walks of life, "a person of ren loves others" is also manifested as a spirit of dedication and sacrifice. The Analects: Wei Ling Gong requires: "Resolute scholars and people of ren will not seek to live at the expense of injuring their ren. They will even sacrifice their lives to consummate their ren." Mencius: Gaozi I maintains: "Life is what I desire; righteousness (yi) is also what I desire. If I cannot have both, I will let life go and choose righteousness." For resolute scholars and people of ren, "practicing ren and love" means that when the interests of the people and the state are threatened, they will choose to "sacrifice their lives for righteousness" without hesitation, using their own lives to defend the dignity and interests of the people and the nation. Since its founding, the Communist Party of China has led the Chinese people, writing "the most magnificent epic in the thousands of years of the Chinese nation's history" with the "undaunted courage of 'our minds grow stronger for the martyrs' sacrifice, daring to bid the sun and moon shine in a new sky.'" ^[29] In the New Era, a large number of advanced Communist Party members, moral models, and heroic groups—such as those acting bravely for a just cause—have emerged. With their sentiment of loving the people and their courage to face difficulties and sacrifice, they vividly interpret the spiritual realm of "selfless great love" pursued by the principle of "a person of ren loves others."

3. From the perspective of the state, "practicing ren and love" requires being "people-oriented" (yi min wei ben)

First, from the perspective of state governance, practicing ren and love means recognizing that "the people are the foundation of the state." The "Song of the Five Sons" in the Book of Documents (Shangshu) contains the admonition: "The people are the foundation of the state; when the foundation is solid, the state is at peace." The Analects: Xue Er requires a ruler to "direct a state of a thousand chariots, be reverent in business and sincere, be economical in expenditure and love the people, and employ the people at the proper seasons." Mencius: Jinxin II contains the judgment: "The people are the most important; the altars of the earth and grain are second; the sovereign is the least important." Mencius: Lilou I believes: "Without the way of Yao and Shun ^[30] and the practice of benevolent government (renzheng), one cannot peacefully govern the world." Xunzi: On Military Affairs maintains: "He who loves the people is strong; he who does not love the people is weak." Mozi: Universal Love II hopes: "The aged who have no wives or children shall have support to end their days; the young and weak orphans who have no parents shall have reliance to grow up." Jia Yi ^[31], in his New Book (Xinshu), proposed the requirement: "In matters of government, there is nothing that is not based on the people. The state takes them as the base, the ruler takes them as the base, and the officials take them as the base." Cheng Yi ^[32] pointed out in his "Memorial in Response to the Imperial Edict on Behalf of Lv Huishu": "The way of government takes following the hearts of the people as the foundation, enriching the people's livelihood as the foundation, and ensuring peace without disturbance as the foundation."

The concepts of "implementing benevolent government" and being "people-oriented" in traditional culture remained largely focused on the issue of "the people's livelihood" (minsheng). Due to social and historical limitations, "practicing ren and love" did not become a universal reality; even the most basic issues of people's livelihood were not properly resolved due to the constraints of the economic and political systems. Since its founding, the CPC has upheld the fundamental purpose of serving the people whole-heartedly and has always placed the interests of the people first. It has not only solved the livelihood problem of "becoming prosperous" but has also realized political whole-process people's democracy. It can be said that the establishment of the socialist system not only solved the "people-oriented" livelihood issue materially but also solved the democratic issue of "the people as the foundation of the state." The report of the 20th CPC National Congress pointed out: "We must adhere to the people-centered development philosophy. We must maintain the fundamental interests of the people, improve their well-being, and ensure that development is for the people, relies on the people, and its fruits are shared by the people, so that the achievements of modernization benefit all people more fairly." At the same time, it proposed: "All power of the state belongs to the people," and "We must adhere to the principal position of the people, fully reflect the will of the people, protect their rights and interests, and stimulate their creative vitality." These are not only the inheritance of the "benevolent government" ideas of loving and enriching the people but also the innovative development of "people-oriented" thought in state governance based on the "Second Combination." ^[33]

In addition, regarding international relations, the "people-oriented" advocacy of implementing benevolent government also helps promote peace and development in the international community. The core of "implementing benevolent government" is also to oppose war, advocate for peace, and protect the lives and interests of the people. Mencius: Lilou I maintains: "In a war for territory, the dead fill the plains; in a war for a city, the dead fill the city. This is what is called leading on the land to devour human flesh. Death is not enough for such a crime." In 2013, in his keynote speech at the Boao Forum for Asia, General Secretary Xi Jinping said: "China will persist in being a good neighbor and partner, consolidate neighborly friendship, deepen mutually beneficial cooperation, and strive to let its own development better benefit neighboring countries." This is because "being kind to and maintaining good relations with neighbors is a tradition of China since ancient times." In the New Era, to "ensure that the torch of peace is passed from generation to generation, the engine of development provides constant power, and the light of civilization shines brightly is the expectation of people of all countries and the responsibility of our generation of politicians. China's solution is: to build a community with a shared future for humanity and achieve win-win results and sharing." Practicing ren and love means seeking "all under heaven as one family," advocating for peace, friendliness, harmony among all nations, and Great Harmony (datong), and longing for a beautiful world where "the Great Way is for the public good" (tianxia wei gong). These concepts provide the ideological foundation for the construction of a community with a shared future for humanity.

The thought of "practicing ren and love" in traditional Chinese culture has continuously evolved through the long river of history. Today, through creative transformation and innovative development, it has become the norms and criteria for regulating the harmonious development of relations between people, between people and things, between people and society, and between states. In the New Era, the fine tradition of "practicing ren and love" will provide a rich historical foundation for promoting the construction of Chinese-path modernization. Therefore, we must still deeply tap into and carry forward the ideological essence of "practicing ren and love" to condense spiritual strength for the realization of the Chinese Dream.