Bai Yunxiang: From Enriching the People and Improving Livelihoods to Common Prosperity: The Modern Transformation and Internal Mechanism of Traditional Economic Ethics
In June 2023, while speaking at a cultural inheritance and development symposium, General Secretary Xi Jinping pointed out: "From nourishing the people and enriching their livelihoods [1] to common prosperity, Chinese civilization has opened up new horizons, achieved the leap from the traditional to the modern, and developed a modern form of Chinese civilization." The Communist Party of China (CPC) has gained deep insight into the internal relationship between Marxism and China’s excellent traditional economic ethics. On the basis of grasping the inner laws of Marxist theoretical innovation and socialist cultural development, the Party has achieved the modern transformation from nourishing the people and enriching their livelihoods to common prosperity. This transformation is a vivid example of the "Two Combinations" [2]. It reflects both the requirements of the era—using the power of Marxist truth as a guide to promote the renewal of Chinese civilization’s vitality and its modern transformation—and a civilizational commitment to continuously advancing the Sinicization and modernization of Marxism, supported by the deep heritage of China’s excellent traditional culture. It reflects the prominent characteristic of Xi Jinping Thought on Culture in fusing the ancient and the modern, and integrating China and the West. Exploring the internal mechanism of this civilizational transformation allows for a deeper appreciation of the scientific power of Xi Jinping Thought on Culture and provides a reference and inspiration for better undertaking the cultural mission of the New Era.
I. The Historical Formation and Core Meaning of the Value Concept of Nourishing the People and Enriching Their Livelihoods
The concept of nourishing the people and enriching their livelihoods (fumin housheng) contains a simple sentiment of concern for the people. it centrally reflects China's traditional governance concepts and economic ethical requirements. It was the guiding ideology for state governance throughout the entire process of traditional society and remains the source of "living water" [3] for the further development of modern thoughts on "ordering the world and succoring the people" [4].
(1) The historical formation of the value concept of nourishing the people and enriching their livelihoods
As a form of practical activity, China began its simple exploration of nourishing the people and enriching their livelihoods before the Three Dynasties (Xia, Shang, and Zhou). The "Records of the Grand Historian" (Shiji) [5] records that early forebears like the Yellow Emperor [6] took measures such as "cultivating virtue and mobilizing the military," "planting the five grains," and "frugality in the use of materials." These can all be seen as concrete practices guided by this value concept. Related concepts such as "enriching the people" (fumin) and "nourishing livelihoods" (housheng) already appeared in early classics such as the Guanzi [7], the Book of Documents (Shangshu), and the Zuo Zhuan. The "Governing the State" chapter of the Guanzi states: "The way to govern a state must begin with enriching the people; if the people are rich, they are easy to govern; if the people are poor, they are difficult to govern." Here, the wealth of the people is seen as the foundation of social governance. The term housheng appears in the "Counsels of Great Yu" chapter of the Book of Documents. After proposing that "virtue lies in good governance, and governance lies in nourishing the people," it emphasizes three key tasks: "rectifying virtue, utilizing resources, and nourishing livelihoods." The Zuo Zhuan (6th year of Duke Wen) also states: "Intercalary months are used to rectify the seasons; seasons are used to perform work; work is used to nourish livelihoods; the way of the people's life lies therein." It argues that carrying out agricultural activities according to the laws of the four seasons can make the people prosperous.
As a clear ethical requirement, the establishment of the value concept of nourishing the people and enriching their livelihoods, and its profound influence on later generations, are closely linked to the maturity of Confucian thought. The Analects ("Zilu") records that after Confucius saw the large population of the State of Wei, he raised the requirement to "enrich them." Zhu Xi [8] commented on this: "If the population is numerous but not rich, then the people's livelihood will not prosper." This means that if a population is large but not prosperous, it indicates that the ruler has not properly solved the people's livelihood problems, which implies a failure in political achievement. The Analects ("Yan Yuan") also records an incident where Duke Ai of Lu consulted Confucius's disciple You Ruo for a strategy when the harvest was poor and expenditures were insufficient. You Ruo proposed reducing taxes, intending for Duke Ai to "practice frugality to enrich the people." It is evident that Confucius's requirements for enriching and nourishing the people were an internal component of his idea of "benevolent governance" (renzheng); a monarch's implementation of benevolent governance first manifests as nourishing and benefiting the people. Mencius inherited Confucius's view on enriching the people, demanding that monarchs "regulate their fields and lighten their taxes," believing that by doing so, "the people can be made rich" (Mencius, "Jin Xin I"). Confucius, Mencius, and others embedded the value concept of nourishing the people and enriching their livelihoods into the organic whole of "benevolent love" (ren'ai), establishing its guiding role throughout history.
(2) Conceptual definition of nourishing the people and enriching their livelihoods
According to the explanation in the Shuowen Jiezi [9], the character "rich" (fù 富) possesses the meanings of both "prepared" (bèi 备) and "thick/ample" (hòu 厚), referring to having all that is needed or having a solid family foundation. The explanation for "thick/ample" (hòu 厚) is "the thickness of mountains and hills," which here is extended to mean "abundant." Different from the modern definition of "the people" (rénmín), the "people" (mín 民) in the context of nourishing the people and enriching their livelihoods refers to the "commoners" (shùmín), carrying a strong hierarchical connotation. For example, Xunzi [10] once said: "A true King enriches the people; a Hegemon enriches the scholars; a state that merely survives enriches the high officials; and a state destined for ruin enriches its coffers and granaries" (Xunzi, "The Regulations of a King"). This outlines the differences in the governance strategies of kings, hegemons, and rulers of states that survive or perish. It also reflects the different groups existing under the traditional hierarchy, such as commoners, scholars, and officials. The "people" mentioned by the ancient Confucian sages refers specifically to the "commoners," who were distinct from other groups and constituted the vast majority of the population. The character "life/livelihood" (shēng 生) refers to survival, daily life, and livelihood, specifically manifesting in the conditions—such as food, drink, clothing, housing, and marriage—that the common people must satisfy to maintain their existence. Having these conditions and improving their quality to a certain level can be considered as meeting the requirements of being "rich" and "abundant."
The bearers of the obligation to nourish the people and enrich their livelihoods are the governors. Together with "integrity," "prudence," and "diligence," it constitutes the main content of traditional Chinese political virtue (zhèngdé). During the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods [11], Confucianism formed the understanding that "the ruler is established for the sake of the people." The Lüshi Chunqiu ("On Preserving Life"), compiled by drawing on the strengths of various schools of thought, also bluntly states: "Officials are established to preserve life." This reveals that the original intention of creating official positions was to protect the lives of the people and ensure their peaceful existence. Chao Cuo of the Han Dynasty once mentioned the principle that "among human emotions, none is stronger than the desire for wealth; the Three Kings provided abundantly and were not distressed," showing that nourishing the people and enriching their livelihoods is the proper action for governors to comply with the needs of the people. The "Records of the Grand Historian" ("Biographies of the Marquis of Pingjin and Zhufu Yan") further explained the political common sense that "the way to govern a state begins with enriching the people," citing the words of Empress Wang Zhengjun. It can be seen that making the people's lives abundant is both the moral duty of governors and an essential means of stabilizing political power. This gives the concept of nourishing the people and enriching their livelihoods both a value orientation of "ordering the world and succoring the people" and a guiding significance for governing the state. In summary, the concept can be defined as the economic ethical requirement and political governance philosophy proposed in traditional Chinese society for governors to ensure the livelihoods of the people are warm and thick, and their lives are abundant.
(3) Practical requirements for nourishing the people and enriching their livelihoods
Based on the reality of traditional society relying mainly on agriculture to solve people's livelihoods, the practical requirements for nourishing the people and enriching their livelihoods also centered on agricultural production. These include: First, ensuring the people possess land, the fundamental means of production. The "Cheng Ma" chapter of the Guanzi regards solving the land problem as the "foundation of governance" and calls for the rational distribution of land. Mencius's demand to "regulate their fields" was also a call for governors to help the people manage their farmland. The Book of Wei ("Annals of Gaozu") records: "Now messengers are sent to tour the provinces and commanderies to equalize the distribution of the world's fields with the governors... encouraging farming and sericulture, which is the foundation of enriching the people." This explicitly states that allowing the people to own land is the basis for encouraging them to plow and weave and achieve an abundant life. Beyond land ownership, land must be used to its full potential, as stated: "The former kings demarcated the world, matching the suitability of the soil and distributing its benefits" (Zuo Zhuan, 2nd year of Duke Cheng). Second, the continuous improvement of labor tools is an internal requirement for elevating agricultural production. The invention and use of stone, bronze, and then iron tools marked the progress of productive forces in China's agricultural society and provided the basic conditions for improving the people's standard of living. Third, governors needed to ensure the smooth conduct of agricultural activities through external conditions, which included a series of measures such as "employing the people according to the seasons," formulating calendars, and reducing taxes.
Based on the multifaceted needs of the people's lives, the advocacy for nourishing the people and enriching their livelihoods emphasized agricultural production while also giving a certain degree of importance to the value of commercial activities. For instance, the Guanzi proposed that "without a market, the people will face shortages," and argued that "the market is where the wealth of heaven and earth is gathered, a place where ten thousand people harmonize and profit; this is the right way." Regarding the three tasks of "rectifying virtue, utilizing resources, and nourishing livelihoods" proposed in the Book of Documents, the Song Dynasty Confucian Cai Shen believed that "utilizing resources" referred to "the production of tools and the exchange of goods through commerce," the goal of which remained facilitating the people's daily use. Furthermore, to make the people's lives prosperous, traditional society also valued the auxiliary role of laws and the administration of officials. For example, Zhang Juzheng [12] emphasized the need to "frequently clarify the laws of the ancestors and strictly evaluate the capabilities of officials, thereby enriching the country and the people."
II. The Inheritance of the Value Concept of Nourishing the People and Enriching Their Livelihoods by Common Prosperity
General Secretary Xi Jinping pointed out: "Excellent traditional Chinese culture is the ‘root’ of our Party's innovative theories." The formation of the value concept of common prosperity is deeply rooted in the fertile soil of Chinese culture, drawing its ideological essence from nourishing the people and enriching their livelihoods in terms of value orientation, specific connotations, and practical methods.
(1) Concerning the livelihoods of the people with sincere emotion
Common prosperity and nourishing the people and enriching their livelihoods possess an internal consistency in value orientation—that is, the requirement that governors should concern themselves with the livelihoods of the people with genuine feelings is consistent throughout. The Mencius ("King Hui of Liang I") records that upon hearing the incident where King Xuan of Qi substituted a sheep for an ox because he could not bear to see the ox trembling, Mencius inspired King Xuan to further expand his "mind that cannot bear to see the suffering of others" (cèyǐn zhī xīn) and apply it to the people, so as to regulate their productive assets, enabling them "above, to have sufficient to serve their parents, and below, sufficient to support their wives and children; in good years to be well-fed all their lives, and in bad years to escape death." Mencius's advocacy clearly explained the emotional source of this governance philosophy: it is expanded from the governor's sense of compassion. In fact, in Mencius's theoretical construction, compassion is not only a virtue of governance but the foundation of all morality, establishing an internal basis in human nature for Confucius's outward-facing "love." Benevolent love (rén’ài) first requires application to one's kinsmen and friends; in the political sphere, it manifests as compassion for the common people. This emotional requirement is internally supported by "sincerity" (chéng) and "reverence" (jìng), emphasizing genuineness to truly "diligently carry out governance to nourish the people with a heart that loves them."
Common prosperity has inherited the value undertone of the traditional spirit of benevolent love. On one hand, this is because the conception of common prosperity itself originated from the sympathy of classical Marxist writers for the oppressed classes and is the embodiment of the original aspiration and founding mission of Chinese Communists. On the other hand, only with deep feelings for the people can the concept and advocacy of common prosperity be continuously advanced in practical reality. "Lying in the official residence and listening to the rustling bamboo, I suspect it is the sound of the people’s suffering; we are but lowly local officials, but every branch and every leaf concerns our feelings." In December 2012, while inspecting poverty alleviation and development work in Fuping County, Hebei Province, General Secretary Xi Jinping cited these lines by the Qing Dynasty poet Zheng Banqiao and emphasized: "We Communists must have such sentiments regarding the hardships of the masses; we must have a heart of benevolence and concern, pay more attention to the people in difficulty, and continuously improve the living standards of all people." This emotional requirement is precisely a contemporary rendition of "exercising a government that cannot bear to see the suffering of others with a mind that cannot bear to see the suffering of others" (Mencius, "Gongsun Chou I"). Chinese Communists accepted Marxism because of this emotional resonance, and under the guidance of Marxism, they have further implemented this sentiment for the people into concrete practical processes.
(2) Elevating the people's material standard of living through gradual progress
In traditional values, the abundance of the people's lives primarily referred to material richness, although this "richness" actually had certain limits. Mencius once used the sentence "the elderly wear silk and eat meat, and the common people are neither hungry nor cold" (Mencius, "King Hui of Liang I") to describe the vision of implementing benevolent governance. From this, it can be seen that the criteria for judging "rich" and "abundant" were dynamically adjusted based on age and physiological changes: if one could be free from hunger and cold before old age and could wear silk and eat meat upon entering old age, such a quality of life could be seen as the manifestation of "rich" and "abundant." To achieve such a vision, the basic requirement for governors was "gradual progress." On one hand, regarding the groups of concern, priority must be given to providing livelihood security for the widowed, the orphaned, and the childless: "When King Wen exercised government and practiced benevolence, he necessarily gave priority to these four classes" (Mencius, "King Hui of Liang II"). On the other hand, regarding the path of advancement, basic security was emphasized first: strengthening defense, building water conservancy facilities, and performing well in disaster prevention and relief work. On this basis, through appropriate measures, the people were encouraged to reclaim land, plow, and weave to further enrich their living materials.
Although compared to traditional society, the level of productive forces and the abundance of material supplies in modern society have undergone tremendous changes, and the understanding of the significance of material needs in advancing historical progress has deepened, common prosperity has indeed inherited the material advocacy of nourishing the people and enriching their livelihoods to a certain extent. First, common prosperity also prioritizes the elevation of the people's material living standards. When discussing the diverse needs of the people, General Secretary Xi Jinping pointed out:
"Material needs come first; having food to eat is the most important thing—hence the saying, 'food is the people's heaven' [13]." It is precisely based on this understanding that taking the road of common prosperity requires "continuously liberating and developing the social productive forces, and striving to resolve the production and living difficulties of the masses." Second, the promotion of common prosperity consistently follows the principle of phased progress. Priority must be given to ensuring the basic livelihood of key regions and populations. Since the Eighteenth National Congress of the CPC, China has focused more on tilting resources and policy support toward rural areas, grassroots communities, and underdeveloped regions, as well as toward people in difficulty. By taking the "Two Assurances and Three Guarantees" [14] as the basic goal to complete the poverty alleviation task on schedule, the Party has substantially advanced the historical process of common prosperity. Furthermore, in the solid promotion of common prosperity, the Party has repeatedly emphasized the need for historical patience, valuing the guiding role of long-term goals while keeping an eye on reality, "accumulating small victories to achieve a major victory, and continuously moving toward the goal of common prosperity for all people."
(3) Taking the wellbeing of the people’s livelihood as the basic standard for judging good governance.
Based on the operational logic of Chinese ethical culture where "each regards the other as heavy" (mutual importance), only when those in power sincerely care for the people can they win the heartfelt love and support of the people. As the saying goes: "If a ruler rejoices in the joy of his people, they also rejoice in his joy; if he grieves at the sorrow of his people, they also grieve at his sorrow" (Mencius: Liang Hui Wang II). This is also the underlying basis for empirical wisdom such as "water can carry a boat, but it can also overturn it" [15]. The support of the masses can be seen as an emotional identification with good governance. As a value judgment, the fundamental basis of good governance lies in whether the methods and results of administration satisfy the people. The people often make judgments based on their own quality of existence. When basic survival is guaranteed, a prosperous scene emerges where "the people turn to him, as water flows downward" (Mencius: Liang Hui Wang I); however, if a situation arises where "the people are exhausted, and the orphans, widows, elderly, and weak cannot support one another," it heralds the "total collapse" of the regime.
Although the level of governance in modern society cannot be compared to that of feudal society, as a standard of judgment, the ability to ensure a warm and thick (generous) livelihood for the people remains a basic requirement of good governance. General Secretary Xi Jinping has pointed out: "Realizing common prosperity is not only an economic issue, but also a major political issue concerning the Party’s governing foundation." The CPC's governing status is not once-and-for-all; the consolidation of this status ultimately depends on the support and endorsement of the people. In modern society, people's judgment of a political party's governance level is likewise derived from the most basic and practical experiences of daily life. In March 2023, while attending the deliberation of the Jiangsu delegation at the first session of the 14th National People's Congress, General Secretary Xi Jinping emphasized that Party committees and governments at all levels must bear in mind that "grassroots governance and livelihood protection concern the immediate interests of the people and are foundational projects for promoting common prosperity and creating high-quality lives." Placing the realization of common prosperity at the height of the overall political situation and effectively improving the people's happiness index is both an inevitable requirement for modernizing the national governance system and governance capacity, and an important measure for winning the hearts of the people and consolidating the CPC's governing status.
III. The Transformation and Development of the Value Concept of Fumin Housheng by Common Prosperity
Exploring the development and changes of ideology from the evolution of real social structures is a basic principle of historical materialism. In this regard, under the era-specific conditions where economic forms and modes of interaction have undergone fundamental changes compared to traditional society, common prosperity—while reflecting the continuity of Chinese civilization—will inevitably present more distinct innovative characteristics. This requires us to fully explain the transformation and development of the fumin housheng [16] value concept by common prosperity, so as to profoundly understand how Marxism makes "the fine traditional Chinese culture become modern."
(1) Population coverage: From the "wealth" of the commoners to the shared wealth of all people.
In traditional hierarchical societies, sages and worthies saw the hardships of the commoners' lives and, out of compassion and the need to maintain rule, proposed a vision of making the commoners' lives prosperous; this is worthy of affirmation. However, this understanding also precisely reflects that commoners under a hierarchy were a vulnerable group; their lives not only differed significantly from those of the nobility and the literati (shi) [17], but this gap was also inevitable. This is because, under traditional relations of production, the strata from the monarch to the literati relied on exploiting the people for survival and pleasure; their interests were, in fact, in conflict with those of the people. Therefore, the exhortation that monarchs should "lighten taxes and levies" (qingyao baofu) persisted throughout traditional society. Furthermore, under conditions of private land ownership, the encroachment on the land of the common people by powerful clans was a natural trend, leading to a massive wealth gap. Consequently, the phenomenon where "those poor people have long resented and desired to destroy the rich" became a historical norm, making fumin housheng an illusory fantasy.
Common prosperity can only be realized under the socialist system; this systemic premise is fundamentally different from the political soil and social conditions upon which fumin housheng was generated. Upon entering the primary stage of socialism, the Chinese people realized their status as masters of the country and achieved equality in personality and status among one another. Therefore, the aspiration for the prosperity of commoners in traditional society has inevitably transformed into the pursuit of a better life shared by all the people. In October 1955, when discussing the prospects of socialist development, Mao Zedong emphasized that under socialist institutional arrangements and planned guidance, China would be able to gradually become richer and stronger, "and this wealth is common wealth, and this strength is common strength," believing that "this common prosperity is certain." In the 1957 Government Work Report, Zhou Enlai pointed out that the goal of socialist revolution and construction is to enable all laborers in society "to jointly enjoy a prosperous, cultured, and happy life," emphasizing that "this is the great ideal that the working people of our country have yearned for over many years." Through the practical exploration of reform and opening up, the CPC further realized that common prosperity is the greatest superiority of socialism and its essential requirement.
General Secretary Xi Jinping has emphasized the need to "enable all people to move steadily toward the direction of common prosperity, and never allow a situation where 'the rich accumulate millions while the poor eat husks and chaff' [18]." The transformation from the "wealth" of the commoners to the shared wealth of all people is the natural result of Chinese Communists' acceptance of Marxism and its successful application to social practice, reflecting an unremitting pursuit of the goal of eliminating exploitation and ultimately achieving human liberation. This transformation is not only a theoretical update but also a transition in the mode of practice, specifically manifested in the continuous improvement of the institutional system and the active creation of conditions for productive forces. First, the establishment of the people's political power guaranteed the people's status as masters of the country; the CPC proposed to further "concretely and realistically manifest the people's status as masters of the country in all aspects of national political and social life." Second, the establishment of public ownership made the means of production owned by the whole people; the CPC has no special interests of its own, and "the Party puts the interests of the masses first at all times," enabling the wealth created by the people to be owned by the people and serve the long-term interests of the people. Furthermore, under the guidance of the new development philosophy, the burst of new quality productive forces represented by artificial intelligence technology is continuously accumulating material wealth for the final realization of common prosperity.
(2) Value orientation: From guaranteeing survival to promoting all-round human development.
Both common prosperity and fumin housheng focus on people’s real lives and value the improvement of material living standards, but they differ significantly in their understanding of the quality and meaning of human existence. Traditional society mainly focused on basic physiological desires—as revealed in the "Ceremonial Usages" chapter of the Book of Rites: "Food, drink, and sexual desires: in these reside the great desires of man." A qualified ruler strove to satisfy these basic desires so that the people would "have no regrets in nourishing the living and burying the dead" (Mencius: Liang Hui Wang I). On this basis, through moral education (jiaohua), people were encouraged to "rest in their relationships and fulfill their roles" (anlun jinfen) [19]. This allowed them to enjoy familial happiness in daily life while maintaining a good social order, which was the manifestation of the ideal "Kingly Way" (wangdao). As Huang Zongxi stated in Waiting for the Dawn (Mingyi Daifang Lu): Knowing the world cannot be without nourishment, land was granted for farming; knowing the world cannot be without clothing, land was granted for mulberry and hemp; knowing the world cannot be without education, schools were established; rites of marriage were created to prevent profligacy, and taxes for soldiers were created to prevent chaos.
It can be seen that traditional society’s understanding of human survival needs possessed historical consistency. This coherent understanding was built upon the reality of low productive forces in traditional society and was influenced by values such as the Confucian "taking pleasure in the Way while at peace with poverty" and "to nourish the heart, nothing is better than reducing desires" (Mencius: Jin Xin II), as well as Taoist concepts of "purity and non-action" (qingjing wuwei) and "knowing contentment." As some scholars believe, this survival did not seem to include "various enjoyments brought to life by the continuous enrichment of material means of life and the continuous improvement of living standards."
The requirements of common prosperity for the quality of human existence are much higher than those of traditional society. It not only requires more sufficient means of life in terms of material living standards but also emphasizes spiritual needs and creative activities, calling for the realization of the free and all-round development of the individual. General Secretary Xi Jinping has pointed out: "Promoting common prosperity and promoting all-round human development are highly unified." All-round human development means not only that the governing subject must create conditions to satisfy the people’s growing spiritual and cultural needs but also provide a favorable external environment to encourage people to fully develop their own potential and obtain development and enjoyment in all aspects—moral, intellectual, physical, aesthetic, and labor.
In fact, this difference in administrative requirements is a natural reflection of the different understandings of human modes of existence in ancient and modern societies. In traditional society, "the people" (min) were understood as humans in a collective sense; individuals were dissolved into the whole, thus becoming "subjects" who passively accepted arrangements. Restricted by the level of productive forces and the need to maintain rule, value concepts represented by fumin housheng emphasized "resting in relationships and fulfilling roles" based on the guarantee of survival. Here, "wealth" (fu) and "generosity/thickness" (hou) actually referred to a state of non-deprivation. Marxism, however, solemnly declared the pursuit of human liberation; "man" here refers to individuals with rich and complete needs. In the perspective of contemporary Marxism, social development and harmony do not come at the expense of human creativity; instead, they rely on and are committed to guaranteeing free and conscious activity. General Secretary Xi Jinping pointed out: "Man is, in essence, a cultural being, not a 'reified' being; an active, all-round being, not a rigid or 'one-dimensional' being." This profoundly reveals that the principle of all-round human development conforms to the trend of historical development and meets the actual needs of the people.
(3) Administrative requirements: From moral advocacy to a fundamental principle internalized in the system.
Dai Zhen [20] once said: "'The substance of the people is their daily food and drink'; these are nothing other than the Way of Man whereby life is generated and sustained. For one person to fulfill their life, and to extend this so that all under heaven may fulfill theirs—this is Benevolence (ren)." This actually represented the mainstream understanding of traditional society: the concept of fumin housheng was, in the final analysis, the concrete manifestation of "Benevolence" in the virtue of governance. Precisely because of this, the degree of its realization depended mainly on the moral cultivation of the ruler and the moral exhortations of others. The detailed "cultivation work" (xiushen gongfu) in traditional classics was mainly directed at the ruler; the idea of "rectifying the prince's heart of its errors" speaks to this logic. It was precisely because of the impotence of moral advocacy that rulers found it difficult to truly care for the people, instead acting out of selfish interest. Even if there were "hundreds of families of the middle class," it was "not enough to fill the expenses of the ruler for a single day." In this situation, the traditional literati naturally attributed the failure of reality to the moral defects of the ruler. For instance, Zhu Xi lamented that due to the monarch's lack of cultivation, "For fifteen hundred years, it has been exactly like this—merely patching up leaks and treading water to pass the days. Although there may have been periods of 'Minor Prosperity' (xiaokang), the Way transmitted by Yao, Shun, the Three Kings, the Duke of Zhou, and Confucius has not been practiced for a single day between heaven and earth." This "not practiced for a single day" can be seen as a cryptic revelation of the illusory nature of the fumin housheng value concept.
As a crystallization of modern civilization, common prosperity—while also emphasizing the people-centered feelings and moral integrity of the ruler—is more fundamentally a principle stipulated by the system. The word "stipulation" (guiding) has two interconnected meanings. First, on the cognitive level, common prosperity is an inherent essential requirement of the socialist system. General Secretary Xi Jinping pointed out: "Realizing common prosperity is the essential requirement of socialism, an important manifestation of our Party's fundamental purpose of serving the people whole-heartedly, and a major responsibility of the Party and the government."
This formulation achieves a fundamental transformation in epistemology, namely the shift from "bestowal" to "obligation." It also theoretically reflects the change in the people’s status from being an oppressed class to becoming masters of their own house. Second, at the level of practice, the realization of common prosperity relies on mandatory institutional stipulations. General Secretary Xi Jinping has emphasized: "We must persist in ensuring that development is for the people, dependent on the people, and that its fruits are shared by the people; we must make more effective institutional arrangements." Elevating this to the level of institutional arrangements means that advancing toward common prosperity involves more than just a clear timetable and roadmap; it also requires the coordinated alignment of governance strategies, evaluation standards, and supervisory mechanisms. This series of institutional arrangements ensures the effective implementation of the value concepts of common prosperity.
In reality, the transition from a single-dimensional moral advocacy to an internal institutional stipulation reflects the historical evolution of China's ethical structure. As seen in the progressive path of "self-cultivation, regulating the family, governing the state, and bringing peace to the world" [21] described in the Great Learning (Daxue), traditional society primarily directed ethical requirements toward specific individuals. Justice requirements at the social dimension long escaped ethical design. Social justice represents the pursuit of the rationality of social order. It was only in modern times, under the influence of modern civilization—and particularly after Marxism was introduced to China—that this understanding was widely accepted and realistically advanced. In the New Era, this has been further promoted and implemented through the proposal of the Core Socialist Values and the continuous improvement of the distribution system. This means that the socialist system possesses both ethical legitimacy and practical coerciveness. Consequently, the Communist Party of China (CPC) is able to promote more obvious and substantive progress toward common prosperity for all people by coordinating the emotional resonance of morality with the majesty of the institutional system.
IV. The Internal Mechanism of the Modern Transformation from Fumin Housheng to Common Prosperity
The inheritance, transformation, and development of fumin housheng into common prosperity is a vivid manifestation of the modern renewal of Chinese civilization. It demonstrates the vast theoretical and practical space for innovation opened up by the "Two Combinations" [22] and carries significant exemplary meaning. Clearly identifying the internal mechanism of the modern transformation of fumin housheng into common prosperity can provide insights and inspiration for further advancing the inheritance and development of fine traditional Chinese culture and unleashing the modern power of Chinese civilization.
(1) Taking Historical Materialism as Guidance to Comprehensively Analyze the Essence and Limitations of the Fumin Housheng Value Concept
The "statecraft and providing for the people" (jingshi jimin) [23] thought, represented by fumin housheng, germinated at the birth of Chinese civilization. Through the systematic construction and wide dissemination by schools such as Confucianism, it profoundly influenced and shaped the psychological expectations of the Chinese people regarding good governance and the basic conceptualization of its realization. It is a precious ideological resource for continuing to promote social governance in the New Era. Once these resources undergo modern transformation, they can be integrated into the theoretical system and actual practice of governance, highlighting the cultural attributes and national characteristics of the Party's innovative theories. General Secretary Xi Jinping pointed out: "Only by comprehensively and deeply understanding the history of Chinese civilization can we more effectively promote the creative transformation and innovative development of fine traditional Chinese culture." This indicates that to achieve the modern transformation of traditional resources, one must first restore them historically, objectively explain their formation and development, and fully tap into their inherent core meanings. On this basis, one must "take the essence and discard the dross." Therefore, a comprehensive understanding of the modern transformation from fumin housheng into common prosperity requires a correct historical analysis of the former, which is inseparable from the guidance of historical materialism.
Historical materialism explores the roots of ethical concepts starting from actual productive activities, holding that these concepts are "nothing else than the material world reflected by the human mind, and translated into forms of thought." This indicates that ethical concepts are adapted to certain modes of production. Thus, the formation process of the fumin housheng concept must be understood within specific historical conditions. By combining the "changes" and "continuities" of social structural factors between ancient and modern times, one can comprehensively analyze its ideological highlights and historical limitations. On the one hand, under the conditions of traditional ownership and the autocratic hierarchy, the concept of fumin housheng inevitably carried backward elements. For instance, the "people" (min) referred to commoners who were the oppressed and exploited party; this meant that pinning the hopes of "enriching the people" on the moral awakening of rulers was illusory. On the other hand, although China's productive forces and relations of production have undergone a revolutionary reshaping from an agricultural society to a modern industrial society, we must still focus on solving the problem of development, especially the distribution of interests during the developmental process. The concern for the common people inherent in the fumin housheng concept, along with its governance requirement to improve the material living standards of the masses, accords with the developmental orientation of socialist society. Therefore, it still possesses contemporary value.
(2) Taking the Consolidation of Cultural Subjectivity as a Fundamental Requirement to Achieve the Integration of Fumin Housheng and Common Prosperity
Upholding and consolidating cultural subjectivity is the fundamental prerequisite for the Chinese nation to achieve spiritual independence and self-reliance. The consolidation of this subjectivity is inseparable from the keen capture of the spirit of the times and the full excavation of deep cultural heritage, because "no modern cultural form is produced out of thin air; all have deep historical origins." Fine traditional Chinese culture is our most profound cultural soft power. Only by connecting traditional cultural resources with the achievements of modern civilization to achieve a continuity between the ancient and the modern can we truly establish a modern civilization suited to our national conditions and endowed with vigorous vitality. "To seek a tree's growth, one must secure its roots; to seek a stream's distance, one must dredge its source." The fundamental reason why Xi Jinping Thought on Socialism with Chinese Characteristics for a New Era is the most powerful manifestation of Chinese cultural subjectivity lies in its deep roots in the fertile soil of Chinese culture, achieving a continuous development of the 5,000-year-old Chinese civilization in the New Era. This general guiding principle runs through the formation of the Party's innovative theories and is profoundly reflected in the inheritance of fumin housheng by common prosperity.
From fumin housheng to common prosperity, although the connotations of the two have achieved a fundamental distinction, the inheritance of active factors from the former into the latter is obvious. The spiritual factors and practical wisdom consistently emphasized—such as benevolence, putting the people first, and honoring harmony—possess eternal value and charm. Conducting a detailed comparative analysis between the values of fumin housheng and common prosperity to clearly explain the inheritance relationship between the two is not intended to crudely patch together traditional social values and modern civilizational achievements. Rather, through the organic connection of their internal genes, it fully demonstrates the national cultural origins of the Party's innovative theories and the immense potential of cultural traditions to achieve modern renewal. Through this organic integration of concepts, we can provide a foundation for common prosperity and other innovative Party theories, allowing the values of common prosperity to extend into historical depths. Simultaneously, it fully displays the vitality of the 5,000-year Chinese civilization, promoting the understanding and emotional identification of the Party's innovative theories among the masses on the basis of firm cultural confidence.
(3) Taking the Power of Marxist Truth as Guidance to Achieve "Weeding Through the Old to Bring Forth the New" from Fumin Housheng to Common Prosperity
Engels once pointed out that the theoretical thinking of every epoch "is a historical product, which at different times assumes very different forms and, therewith, very different contents." Common prosperity has achieved the modern transformation of fumin housheng; this is expressed not only in the formal change of names but more so in the fundamental change of substantive content. That this transformation can be realized depends, in the final analysis, on the theoretical guidance of Marxism. General Secretary Xi Jinping pointed out: "Marxism brought advanced ideological theories to China, activating the genes of Chinese civilization with the light of truth and leading China into the modern world." Marxism was formed on the basis of profound insight into and critique of capitalist civilization. It not only far surpassed the cognitive level of feudal society but also possesses a deep understanding of the drawbacks of modern industrial civilization, providing guidance for the broad path of human civilizational development on this basis. The shift from fumin housheng to common prosperity profoundly reflects how Marxism—through its fundamental methodology, core value pursuits, and basic viewpoints—has activated traditional cultural genes.
First, materialist dialectics is the fundamental methodology of Marxism. Dialectics places everything within the process of historical development, recognizing negative factors while maintaining an affirmative understanding of a thing. It is precisely these inherent negative factors that make development possible, providing the fundamental theoretical compliance for the modern leap from fumin housheng to common prosperity. Second, achieving human liberation is the core value pursuit of Marxism, and upholding "people-centeredness" is the fundamental value position of a Marxist party. Therefore, the "people-attribute" (renminxing) runs throughout this transformation: on the one hand, it fully excavates the essence of the "people" in the value concept of fumin housheng; on the other hand, it transforms the historically limited understanding of "the masses" (min) therein into a theory of the "people" within the Marxist perspective. Finally, Marxism holds that the contradictory movements between the productive forces and relations of production, and between the economic base and the superstructure, are the basic driving forces of social development. The transformation from fumin housheng to common prosperity ultimately reflects the fundamental change in the relations of production based on the development of productive forces, and the resulting fundamental reshaping of the value goals of social development. Simultaneously, it points out the realistic path for achieving common prosperity by relying on the further development of productive forces.
(4) Taking the Great Practice of Socialism with Chinese Characteristics as Support to Continuously Enrich the Contemporary Connotation of Common Prosperity
In the long river of history, the value concept of fumin housheng shaped the social psychology and value orientation of the Chinese people, laying the cultural foundation and collective consciousness for the proposal and deepening of the concept of common prosperity. Marxism, with its scientific nature in grasping the laws of social development and its morality in seeking human liberation, stipulates the goal and fundamental path for the concept of common prosperity. The idea of common prosperity, generated by combining the basic tenets of Marxism with fine traditional Chinese culture, demonstrates deep cultural heritage and noble value pursuits, becoming an internal requirement of Chinese-path modernization. Although the CPC has reached a certain height in its understanding of common prosperity by fusing the ancient and modern and integrating Chinese and Western perspectives, this theoretical innovation has not become static. Rather, it exhibits the open characteristics of further development through interaction with practice. This is because achieving common prosperity is a process of economic and social development. New contradictions will inevitably arise in this process, and the drive to resolve these contradictions will further enrich theoretical connotations and elevate cognitive levels. This also means that the modern transformation from fumin housheng to common prosperity is still ongoing.
Vibrant social practice provides a broad field of inquiry and a source of innovative power for the development of common prosperity theory. By combining new social practices and drawing on the achievements of different civilizations, the CPC’s understanding of common prosperity has become deeper and more concrete. General Secretary Xi Jinping pointed out: "After years of exploration, we have a complete set of methods for solving the problem of poverty, but we still need to explore and accumulate experience on how to become wealthy." In June 2021, the Opinions of the CPC Central Committee and the State Council on Supporting Zhejiang's High-Quality Development and Building a Demonstration Zone for Common Prosperity stated: "Supporting Zhejiang... is conducive to further enriching the ideological connotation of common prosperity through practice, to exploring effective ways to resolve the principal contradiction of society in the New Era, and to providing a provincial-level example for the nation to promote common prosperity." It is evident that how to specifically advance and realize common prosperity in a country with such a massive population and vast territory remains a question to be explored. Only by answering these questions well can the value concept of common prosperity continuously become a reality while advancing with the times, and can the modern transformation of fumin housheng become more scientific and solid, fully exerting the great significance of civilizational inheritance and innovation.
(Author's Affiliation: School of Marxism, Nankai University)