A Review of Atheism Research and 60 Years of New China: Summary of the 2009 Annual Conference of the Chinese Atheism Society
On December 12–13, 2009, the School of Philosophy at Shanghai Normal University, in collaboration with the Chinese Association for Atheism and the Institute of Religious Studies at the Shanghai Academy of Social Sciences, jointly held the 2009 Annual Academic Conference of the Chinese Association for Atheism and the academic symposium "Atheism Research and the 60th Anniversary of New Era China" [1] in Shanghai. More than 60 experts and scholars from over 30 institutions attended this grand event. The conference received over 30 papers and conducted two keynote reports and five specialized seminars. Participating scholars approached the subject from three dimensions—reality, policy, and theory—to review and look forward to the cause of atheism research, propaganda, and education in China. They engaged in in-depth discussions on fields such as atheism and national education, atheism and the Sinicization of Marxism, and Chinese versus Western atheism research.
I. Historical Review and Future Outlook
Over the 60 years since the founding of New China, the cause of atheism research, propaganda, and education has traversed an extraordinary path of development. Li Shen of Shanghai Normal University, representing the Chinese Association for Atheism and drawing on his personal experiences, reviewed the arduous journey of China’s atheism cause since the founding of the People's Republic, and particularly during the 30 years of Reform and Opening-up, detailing its gains, losses, successes, and failures. Li Shen pointed out that the ideology of scientific atheism was an advanced concept vigorously advocated during the May Fourth Movement [2]. Dispersing superstition and propagating atheism can be considered one of the intellectual markers of China’s entry into the modern era, as well as an important ideological task for Chinese Communists during the revolution. After the founding of New China, the state continued to advance atheism propaganda and education on one hand, while formulating and implementing religious policies on the other. This marked a transition from "breaking superstition" to "studying religion." The Institute of World Religions [3] was established with the aim of "criticizing theology" (in the words of mainland leader Mao Zedong). However, the Cultural Revolution hindered religious studies and the healthy development of the atheism cause.
Following the Cultural Revolution, the Chinese Association for Atheism and the Chinese Association for Religious Studies were established successively; their original intent was to study religious issues from an atheistic standpoint. Treating religion correctly while simultaneously persisting in atheism research, propaganda, and education were the two important tasks of that period. Ren Jiyu [4] consistently advocated for the establishment of Marxist Religious Studies, emphasizing that the essence of Marxist Religious Studies is scientific atheism. However, opponents argued that propagating atheism was tantamount to "marching against religion" to eliminate it, which they deemed erroneous and harmful. During the so-called "Third Opium War" [5], the voice of scientific atheism was suppressed. The rise of "supernormal functions" [6], feng shui superstition, the "Qigong fever," and even the emergence of Falun Gong were all related to the exhaustion of the atheism cause. On the other hand, religion developed vigorously, and the number of religious believers increased sharply. This situation of "theists having a voice while atheists remain silent" did not change until around 1999. Through the efforts of Mr. Ren Jiyu, the Chinese Association for Atheism resumed its activities, the journal Science and Atheism was founded, and it played a vital role in the struggle against pseudoscience and cults while advocating for science and atheism. In recent years, Party and state leaders have issued many speeches and instructions, and relevant departments have released a series of documents; consequently, atheism research and propaganda have received increasing understanding and emphasis, and China's atheism cause is moving toward a new stage. Li Shen finally reiterated that China’s modernization requires nicht only "escaping poverty" but also "escaping ignorance." He argued that the view that merely popularizing scientific knowledge constitutes the propagation of scientific atheism—or the practice of discussing the Marxist view of religion while evading atheism—actually amounts to canceling atheism propaganda and education, thereby emasculating the most fundamental element of the Marxist view of religion. Li Shen’s speech combined history with theory and possessed a broad vision, resonating widely with the participating scholars.
Xi Wuyi of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences also reflected on and criticized certain phenomena in current academic circles. In her view, some scholars who claim to study the Marxist view of religion never mention scientific atheism, believing that advocating atheism would undermine religious harmony. Furthermore, some actively advocate for religious theology, promoting it as an academic research direction for national research institutions and institutions of higher learning. Others go to great lengths to praise a specific religious culture, interpreting it as the source of morality, the foundation of democracy, and even the prerequisite for science. These ideas are increasingly moving beyond the level of private spiritual belief and into the public social sphere; if they become further ideologized, they will affect policy formulation, the direction of public opinion, and social harmony. Moreover, the imbalanced translation and introduction of various foreign trends of thought is detrimental to the domestic academic ecosystem. In view of this, Xi Wuyi emphasized that natural science is an important cornerstone of contemporary atheism. Darwin’s theory of biological evolution shook the foundations of religious theology and became a pillar of modern scientific atheism. The spread of "intelligent design" and the "false marriage" between religion and science are merely strategic adjustments by conservative religious forces. With the development of modern sciences such as neuro-cognitive science, the "sacred veil" of religion will inevitably be uncovered, and global supernaturalism will gradually decline. Regarding the relationship between science and religion, Chen Xueming of Fudan University expressed a similar view. He believed it is wrong for many people now to use science to serve religious theism. In fact, science can weaken religion; atheism and materialism are natural allies. Therefore, we must deeply study the relationship between atheism and science and sever the connection between science and religious theism, thereby promoting the development of the atheism cause.
Reviewing the past, facing reality, and looking to the future, China's atheism cause has a long way to go, yet its significance is profound, characterized by importance, urgency, and difficulty. Yan Kejia of the Shanghai Academy of Social Sciences pointed out that the major challenges currently faced include how to uphold atheism and the Marxist view of religion within religious studies, and how to combine Marxist atheism with development during the current period of social transition to exert its social impact. Ye Luhua, from the Shanghai Office for Preventing and Handling Cult Issues, pointed out the great significance of carrying out atheism research, propaganda, and education for building a harmonious society, enhancing urban cultural space, guiding the spiritual life of citizens, and successfully hosting the Shanghai World Expo. Hou Huiqin of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences also emphasized that the global situation, the national condition, and the Party’s condition all require us to attach great importance to and effectively advance China’s atheism cause. Du Jiwen of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences emphasized that the situation where religion flourishes, religious discourse prevails, and the cause of atheism is marginalized urgently needs to be changed. Participating scholars also called for the atheism cause in the New Era to have long-term planning and institutional guarantees, with strategic positioning in personnel training, disciplinary establishment, theoretical research, and public communication.
II. Scientific Atheism and National Education
The strategy of "invigorating the country through science and education" is a basic national policy of China, and upholding atheism is an inherent part of it. How to uphold scientific atheism in national education, prevent the infiltration of religious trends of thought, and establish a correct worldview are important current theoretical issues. Du Jiwen of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences called for attention to the phenomenon of religious theology entering the national education system and research institutions. In his paper, he pointed out that because education regarding a positive worldview is weak, people's spiritual worlds are easily eroded by various old and new theologies; the rise of pseudoscience, the distortion of traditional culture, and the irregular expansion of religion are all related to this. He also pointed out that from Zhang Zhidong to Cai Yuanpei to Hu Shi [7], there was vigorous opposition to religion entering the field of education, especially at the university level. Since the founding of New China, relevant laws have explicitly stipulated the separation of religion and education. However, since the end of the last century, the spread of religion in institutions of higher learning has moved from secret to open, and the influence of religious trends on education is worrying. Du Jiwen further pointed out that reflecting on these phenomena raises many major questions that must be answered: opening public schools and national research institutions to religious theology is difficult to reconcile with the theory and practice of modern education since the Hundred Days' Reform [8], the theory and practice of culture and education closely linked to the Chinese revolution and construction, the social nature of socialism with Chinese characteristics and its requirement to build an "advanced culture," and the state's policies and goals for talent cultivation. Leaving the human spiritual world to religious theology clearly does not conform to the developmental direction of the history of human civilization.
Regarding the issue of scientific atheism education for young students, participating scholars held discussions from both theoretical and empirical perspectives. Yu Qiming of Minzu University of China argued that strengthening scientific atheism education in universities is extremely necessary and urgent, possessing exceptional significance. In his paper, he explored the inherent relationship between Marxist principles and scientific atheism, emphasizing the need to value, persist in, and improve scientific atheism education; relying solely on the "straight path of pure Marxist education" is insufficient and erroneous. In view of this, we must distinguish between scientific concepts and religious beliefs, and between scientific knowledge and the scientific spirit; we must promote the scientific spirit and actively respond to the challenges of "ultimate concern." Li Zhiying of Beijing Normal University explored the causes, current status, and countermeasures regarding religious belief among contemporary college students from an empirical perspective. she argued that the emergence of this increasingly prominent social phenomenon reflects, on one hand, the influence of social problems and value pluralism on youth during the period of social transition, and on the other hand, the defects in our national education system and the structural absence of ideological and political work in universities. These phenomena bring challenges to social stability and the construction of socialism with Chinese characteristics. Additionally, scholars discussed the basic models and types of religious activities in universities, as well as the methods and paths for atheism education in universities, emphasizing both the complexity and severity of religious spread and the urgency and importance of atheism education. Regarding atheism education for minors, Sun Qian of the China Association for Science and Technology argued that although some achievements have been made in theory and practice in recent years, it remains at the level of theoretical discussion and appeals, lacking substantial pedagogical progress and effective utility. In actual moral education practice, atheism education is consistently absent. Therefore, in the current and upcoming period, we must further deepen atheism education for youth, advance the work of "bringing atheism into the classroom," incorporate atheism education into the system for the ideological and moral development of minors, optimize the "soft environment" for atheism education, and provide effective institutional guarantees and guidance of public opinion.
Creating a healthy social atmosphere that promotes science and civilization, opposes ignorance and superstition, and resists fallacious arguments also relies on atheism propaganda and education. Duan Qiming of the State Administration for Religious Affairs argued that scientific atheism propaganda and education are important spiritual weapons for effectively preventing, resisting, and defeating cults. One important reason for the overflow of various types of theism and the growth of cults like Falun Gong is the lack of scientific atheism propaganda and education. In the decades-old struggle against cults, Chinese Communists have also enriched and developed Marxist religious theory; we should use the opportunity of summarizing lessons learned to make comprehensive long-term plans for scientific atheism propaganda and education. Addressing current cognitive biases, Duan Qiming also pointed out that scientific atheism propaganda and education are compatible with the freedom of religious belief. Marxist religious theory is essentially Marxist scientific atheism; using the pretext of "treating religion and religious belief correctly" to negate Marxist atheism is precisely a negation of Marxist religious theory. Scientific atheism propaganda and education should become a basic national policy and be persisted in over the long term. Chen Jifang of the Shanghai Association for Science and Technology, based on personal experience in anti-cult work, emphasized the importance of studying the human spiritual world; only by vigorously propagating scientific atheism and correctly guiding people's spiritual lives can the problems of cults and superstition be better resolved. Li Sizhen of East China Normal University argued that how to obtain the "discursive power" [9] for atheism is an important issue currently facing atheism propagandists. in his view, atheism propaganda and education can be approached from three levels: seeking truth in the field of natural science, seeking goodness in the field of outlook on life and values, and attaining beauty in the field of ideal realms. To this end, we must focus on absorbing all kinds of knowledge accumulated by humanity, including religious knowledge, and combine this with new situations and problems in contemporary Chinese society to create new ideas and methods on the basis of combining theory and practice.
III. Scientific Atheism and the Sinicization of Marxism
The relationship between atheism and Marxism, particularly Sinicized Marxism, was also a central theme of this conference. Participating scholars expressed intense academic interest in the relationship between scientific atheism and the pursuit of transcendental spirituality. Hou Huiquin pointed out that advocating for scientific atheism is not contradictory to respecting individual freedom of religious belief. He argued that people harbor two misconceptions regarding the issue of faith. First is the simplified understanding of "faith" as solely religious theistic belief. In fact, as Marx pointed out long ago in the Critique of the Gotha Programme, the "freedom of faith" for the bourgeoisie is merely the freedom of religious belief, whereas the freedom of faith for the proletariat must transcend religious belief and involve liberation from it. The second misconception is the assumption that any talk of "freedom" in this context refers exclusively to religious freedom, as if only religious faith can provide ultimate concern [10], and that no other mode of faith is possible. In reality, the essence of faith is to explain and resolve the infinity and immortality of individual life. Through scientific means, it is also possible to solve this problem of "immortality." Therefore, atheism research must vigorously strengthen the education of communist convictions and the study of educational mechanisms. Chen Xueming of Fudan University also noted in his remarks that contemporary society is awash with material desires, causing a loss of spiritual direction. Some wrongly believe that only religious theism can comfort the human heart and that only a religious "beyond" can satisfy the human pursuit of the ultimate and eternal. In fact, atheism can also provide spiritual comfort; the spiritual life of modern people is fully capable of moving toward atheism. The Communist Party of China (CPC) can propose a system of Socialist Core Values, which is something religious theism cannot do.
Regarding the relationship between scientific atheism and Marxism, participating scholars conducted in-depth discussions. Li Jiansheng of Xinjiang Normal University argued that the scientific nature of Marxist scientific atheism possesses a rich connotation reflected in both theory and practice. Theoretically, its scientific nature is embodied in its theoretical foundation, its principles of argumentation, and the scientific quality of its evidentiary materials. Practically, it is reflected in its scientific approach to critiquing theism and handling relations with theism. Only by unifying Marxism’s clear intentionality, distinct combativeness, and rigorous scientificity can one completely and accurately grasp its scientific characteristics and their profound significance. Meanwhile, Tian Xinming of the Ministry of Education argued that whether it is legitimate and rational to promote scientific atheism and criticize theism is a foundational question that atheism research must answer. He pointed out that Marxism is the fundamental guiding ideology upon which our Party and state are founded, and adhering to scientific atheism is an inherent part of adhering to Marxism. Adhering to scientific atheism necessitates the analysis and critique of theism; this is determined by the particularity of scientific atheism’s subject of study and its basic conclusions. Scientific atheism research and promotion must persist in using Marxism as a guide and follow the Party's basic policy on religious work. Persisting in scientific atheism is unified with the effort to achieve the three "harmonious coexistences" [11] regarding religion. Xu Lin of the Hebei Provincial Academy of Social Sciences expressed a similar view. Using detailed materials, he discussed several theoretical issues in the relationship between scientific atheism and the Marxist view of religion, critiquing certain extremist and erroneous viewpoints currently in circulation. He argued that critiquing religious theism is precisely the basic characteristic of scientific atheism; "militant atheism" does not lack rationality, and scientific atheism is fundamentally consistent with the Marxist view of religion—they are not two different worldviews. Chinese Communists have always adhered to Marxist scientific atheism, which is consistent with "actively guiding religion to adapt to socialist society" and "comprehensively implementing the Party’s basic policy on religious work to give play to the positive role of religious figures and believers in promoting economic and social development." Jia Runguo of the State Administration for Religious Affairs also discussed the essence and elements of the Marxist view of religion. He pointed out that the Marxist view of religion is a very important theory within the Marxist theoretical system pursued by the CPC and is the guiding theory for China’s religious work and research. Persisting in the study and promotion of atheism is a basic requirement of the Marxist view of religion and a vital task for our Party on the ideological and theoretical front. Chen Xueming of Fudan University argued that we must not distort Marx and should value Marx’s critique of religious teleology. His paper examined the study of Marx’s doctoral dissertation by the American Marxist theorist John Bellamy Foster, arguing that Foster’s research achieved a "rectification of departures from the correct line" [12] on two issues: Marx was a materialist, and Marx’s materialism is incompatible with religious teleology. From this, Chen further pointed out that Marxism, as a worldview, is incompatible with religious theism, and communism is incompatible with religious faith. Regarding "hot button" issues such as Party members and cadres holding religious beliefs, participating scholars also launched a preliminary exploration. Wang Zhen of the Central Institute of Socialism and Zeng Chuanhui of CASS reviewed certain currently vague viewpoints, arguing that the Communist Party is definitively incompatible with religious faith; otherwise, it would not be the Communist Party.
Furthermore, Jin Minqin of CASS proposed that breaking through "superstitious thinking" was an important prerequisite for the historical inception of the Sinicization of Marxism. The fundamental characteristic of the superstitious mode of thinking is theoretical irrationality and practical blind obedience; its essence is an idealist worldview and a metaphysical methodology. The developmental history of the Sinicization of Marxism is, to a certain extent, a history of breaking through superstition. In the initial stage of Sinicized Marxism, the Chinese Communists—represented by Mao Zedong—combined Marxism with the specific practice of the Chinese revolution in the process of breaking through blind obedience to superstitions such as "the supremacy of the higher-ups," "the supremacy of the Comintern," and "the supremacy of books." They creatively explored and opened a revolutionary path with Chinese characteristics, established the ideological line of "seeking truth from facts" and "starting from reality in all things," and formed the preliminary scientific theory of Sinicized Marxism. To promote the theoretical innovation of contemporary Sinicized Marxism, we must break through all forms of blind obedience and dogmatism represented by "Marxist dogmas," "foreign dogmas," "ancient dogmas," and "new dogmas." Chen Yalian of CASS discussed the 60-year journey and experience of the Sinicization of the Marxist view of religion. The 60th anniversary of the founding of New China represents 60 years of the Sinicization of Marxism and 60 years of the Sinicization of the Marxist view of religion. Successive generations of the Party's central collective leadership have persisted in integrating the basic principles of Marxism with the reality of Chinese religion, accumulating valuable historical experience. The Sinicization of the Marxist view of religion must proceed from the height of benefiting the cause of socialist revolution and construction. It must adhere to the dialectical materialist standpoint while fully recognizing that religious issues are characterized by their mass nature, ethnic nature, long-term nature, and complexity. Starting from the actual situation of domestic religion, we must both persist in and innovate upon the Marxist view of religion. Huang Kui of CASS first introduced a summary and the implications of the film 2012, then discussed the general state of belief in American society and the struggles of atheist organizations. He then looked toward the prospects of Chinese ideology and the cause of atheism through the lens of American ideology and its influence on China. In his view, the doomsday imagery of 2012 is merely the dying sleep-talk of Western imperialist powers—led by the United States—and their Christian civilization, intended to deceive and frighten themselves and others. Meanwhile, the prospect of rejuvenation by "2040" (the 200th anniversary of the outbreak of the Opium War) and the glorious expectation of "2049" (the centenary of the founding of New China) will become the national vision for the Chinese people in the 21st century—a goal with "a momentum that cannot be stopped" [13].
IV. Chinese and Western Atheism Research
The academic quality of this conference was also reflected in the fact that more scholars have begun to conduct in-depth and meticulous research on Chinese and Western atheism. Li Mingyou of Zhejiang University discussed the atheist thought of the late Ming great scholar Huang Zongxi, arguing that Huang spent his life spares no effort in critiquing superstitious and evil doctrines, serving as a promoter and practitioner of atheist thought. Connecting this to the current flooding of religious trends in society, Li believes that explicating Huang Zongxi’s atheism has enlightening significance for today's atheist propaganda and education. Cai Zhidong of Shanghai Normal University discussed the establishment, deviation, and historical trajectory of the "True Suchness" (zhenru) philosophy of the modern master Zhang Taiyan. In his view, Zhang both critiqued and advocated for religion, using the critique of theistic religion to promote a non-theistic religion, thereby establishing modern subjectivity. As a link in China’s modern philosophical revolution, the modern subjectivity Zhang established was later fractured and collapsed, ultimately replaced by the "active and revolutionary theory of reflection" [14] created by the Chinese Communists represented by Mao Zedong. Commenting on these two presentations, Chen Weiping of Shanghai Normal University pointed out that "Real China" comes from "Historical China"; the relationship between Huang Zongxi’s atheism and his democratic political ideas, and between Zhang Taiyan’s atheism and his revolutionary claims and practice, are complex and important research topics. Furthermore, Zhao Lei of Zhejiang Normal University discussed the atheist psychological thought of Wang Fuzhi, noting that Wang was the great synthesizer of atheist psychological thought during the Ming and Qing dynasties. He not only maintained an atheist stance in the realm of nature but also dealt a powerful blow to theism in the socio-historical realm. His atheist thought left no room for a mysterious "Heaven" or "Lord" in nature, fundamentally denying God and his dominant status, and thus naturally stood in opposition to all religious theology and traditional secular superstition, possessing a strong anti-theological significance and laying the intellectual foundation for the formation of modern Chinese psychology. Chen Yongsheng of Zhejiang Normal University discussed the intellectual origins, main characteristics, and historical contributions of Freud's psychoanalytic view of religious psychology. He argued that Freud was deeply influenced by Darwin's biological evolution, Feuerbach's humanistic religious philosophy, Frazer's theory of "magic precedes religion," and Wundt's folk-cultural religious psychology. Its main contribution lies in its unique exploration of deep psychological mechanisms of faith and its critical spirit toward traditional religious ills. Its limitations lie in exaggerating the role of instinctual conflict and lacking scientific evidence for generalizing religious psychology from cases of obsessive-compulsive disorder. Zhao Yang of the China Science and Technology Museum pointed out how the historical development of astronomy shaped and enlightened worldviews. In his view, the effectiveness of astronomical research methods deeply shaped core concepts such as time, space, and the origin of the universe, influencing other disciplines' methodologies. Changes in astronomy have repeatedly pushed social ideology toward a scientific and rational direction. Chen Rongxia of Shanghai Normal University explored Darwin's view of religion, arguing that while Darwin was not strictly an atheist, he remained a skeptic. Currently, Chinese people's understanding of Darwin is biased, and there is a lack of introduction and research regarding the latest international Darwin studies and the development of Western atheism. Gong Xuezeng of the Central Party School detailed the guiding ideology, historical process, characteristics, and successes/failures of atheist research and education in the former Soviet Union. He argued that Soviet atheist education, as an aspect of ideological education, promoted secularization and resisted religious influence. However, the fundamental factor was the socialist transformations in the Soviet Union over several decades, which weakened the conditions upon which religion depends. Communist education in atheism is not accidental but determined by the socialist system. He further pointed out that our study of Soviet atheist education is a historical investigation using historical materialism to draw conclusions; its lessons [15], in particular, should serve as a warning for atheism research and education in China today.
This conference was an important academic gathering convened under new circumstances, characterized by a clear theme, focused topics, a broad scope of inquiry, diverse participation, and vigorous discussion. It received high praise from the attending scholars. Chen Weiping of Shanghai Normal University argued that this meeting not only attended to practical realities and focused on policy, but also fruitfully discussed major theoretical questions such as the relationship between atheism and Marxism, atheism and religious theism, and atheism and the spiritual life of the human being. In doing so, it clarified several cognitive misunderstandings and reached a degree of ideological consensus. Participating scholars further suggested that this conference is worthy of being recorded in the annals of the Chinese Association for Atheism, and may even occupy its rightful place in the history of Chinese thought.