Cheng Long and Zhang Le: Perspectives of Japanese Academia on Chinese-style Modernization
Abstract The realization of modernization has been a common pursuit for both China and Japan since the dawn of the modern era. The Communist Party of China’s (CPC) tireless struggle to initiate, advance, and expand the path of Chinese-path modernization has drawn intense scholarly attention in Japan. What brilliant achievements has Chinese-path modernization attained? Why has it been successful? What are its prominent characteristics? What experiential enlightenment can it offer? Japanese academia has conducted extensive research on these questions from diverse perspectives, putting forward many viewpoints and interpretations. Systematically sorting and analyzing Japanese scholarship on Chinese-path modernization is undoubtedly of great significance for broadening our theoretical horizons, developing the disciplinary system of Marxist theory, and comprehensively advancing the innovative development of Chinese-path modernization.
Keywords: Chinese-path modernization; Socialism with Chinese Characteristics; Japanese academia
Japan is a close neighbor of China and was an important source for the introduction of Marxism into China. Since the day of its founding, the CPC has struggled tirelessly to realize Chinese-path modernization, attracting high levels of attention from Japanese scholars. What brilliant achievements has Chinese-path modernization attained? Why has it been successful? What are its prominent characteristics? What experiential enlightenment can it offer? In recent years, these have become the primary questions explored by Japanese academia when researching China, resulting in a vast body of viewpoints and observations. This article seeks to systematically organize the relevant research from Japanese academia to provide a reference for comprehensively advancing Chinese-path modernization in the New Era.
I. On the Brilliant Achievements of Chinese-path Modernization
Japanese academia highly affirms the immense achievements of Chinese-path modernization, primarily exploring them through the dimensions of economic growth, social development, and international engagement.
(1) Chinese-path modernization has created a miracle of rapid economic development Japanese scholars generally believe that sustained, high-speed economic growth is the landmark performance of Chinese-path modernization. Shigeto Sonoda, a professor at the Institute for Advanced Studies on Asia at the University of Tokyo, argues that Chinese-path modernization accelerated the growth of the market economy, created a new era of economic development, and provided space for economic freedom for various agents. Kiyoshi Wadaka, president of Japan’s H-I Consultancy, points out that despite the shock of the COVID-19 pandemic, China’s modernization process—guided by “pacifism”—continued to advance, with its market expanding further. He states frankly, “Japan should face toward Asia and China and boldly move toward the era of China.” Hiroyuki Yatsumaki, an advisor to the Tokyo Metropolitan Japan-China Friendship Association, notes: “In the 40 years of Reform and Opening-up, China’s total foreign trade grew 198-fold, and per capita disposable income increased 152-fold. In the 10 years since entering the New Era, China has eliminated absolute poverty and developed into an economic power with strength nearing that of the United States.” C.H. Kwan, Chief Economist at the Nomura Institute of Capital Markets, compared major economic indicators such as GDP, import/export volume, foreign exchange reserves, and automobile and steel production between China, the US, and Japan, predicting that China’s GDP will surpass that of the US by 2026 to become the world’s largest. He points out that amid the current global economic slump, “China’s growth rate still greatly exceeds that of major countries, and its influence on the world economy continues to grow; the era of 'China First' is steadily approaching.” Akio Takahara, Professor Emeritus at Waseda University, believes that while most major countries remain mired in the chaos of negative economic growth, China's growth stands out as exceptionally prominent, demonstrating strong developmental resilience. In an article commemorating the 50th anniversary of the normalization of diplomatic relations between Japan and China, the Yomiuri Shimbun noted: “The economic ties between Japan and China are close; China has been Japan’s largest trading partner for 15 consecutive years, while Japan is China's second-largest trading partner after the US. If China, the world’s second-largest economy, and Japan, the third-largest, can cooperate and support infrastructure construction in developing countries, it will bring prosperity not only to Japan and China but also to the Asia-Pacific region.”
(2) Chinese-path modernization has created a model for stable and orderly social development Japanese scholars have fully affirmed the role of Chinese-path modernization in promoting comprehensive social progress, arguing that it has profoundly changed China's mode of social development and brought tangible benefits to the Chinese people. Akio Takahara believes that in the process of modernization, China has both maintained economic vitality and overcome the negative factors potentially generated by social mobility, thereby maintaining stable and orderly social development. Takashi Suzuki, associate professor at the Faculty of Foreign Studies, Aichi Prefectural University, emphasizes that under the leadership of the CPC, China has achieved considerable success in urbanization and informatization. Tadashi Murata, Professor Emeritus at Yokohama National University and an expert on modern Chinese history, points out that over the past decade, China has adhered to the "people-centered" [1] purpose in practicing New Thought [2], carrying out ideological education for Party members, the anti-corruption struggle, deepening supply-side structural reform, winning the battle against poverty, and fighting the COVID-19 pandemic, all of which created important conditions for stable social development. Katsuji Nakagane, Professor Emeritus at the University of Tokyo, believes that Chinese-path modernization has led to a universal increase in per capita national income, material abundance, and a reduction in the impoverished population. Mitsuru Okada, a former editorial expert at Kyodo News, noted: “In the past decade, China’s per capita GDP has doubled, increasing from 39,800 RMB to 81,000 RMB.” Takamoto Suzuki, Economic Research Director at Marubeni (China) Co., Ltd., pointed out: “In the past 10 years, facing the downward trend in world trade and the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic, China adjusted its development model, achieving an average annual economic growth rate of 6.6% from 2013 to 2021.” Shinichi Ichimura, an advisor to the International Centre for the Study of East Asian Development, noted: “In the process of modernization, China's levels of national education and people’s living standards have continuously improved.” Junpei Kubota, a professor at the Research Institute for Humanity and Nature, believes that facing environmental issues in the modernization process, the Chinese government has promoted the construction of ecological civilization with an active stance, undertaking a series of reforms such as amending environmental protection laws, establishing accountability systems for environmental issues, promoting information disclosure, and strengthening supervision of polluting enterprises by residents and NGOs. China has gradually explored a “policy integration” model that creates a win-win for economic growth and environmental protection, implementing market mechanisms or flexibly utilizing economic incentives for environmental measures. “In terms of focusing on environmental protection while stimulating the economy, China is more advanced than Japan.”
(3) Chinese-path modernization has profoundly influenced the historical process of global modernization Chinese-path modernization has not only reconstructed the mode of production and way of life for the Chinese nation and its people but has also profoundly influenced the developmental process of world modernization. Katsuji Nakagane points out: “Today, one cannot discuss the world economy without mentioning China. If influence in international politics is a positive function of economic and military strength, then China's current international political influence has completely transcended the scope of a 'developing country.'” Akio Takahara states frankly: “China’s influence as a ‘responsible major power’ and the world's expectations of it are both increasing.” C.H. Kwan recognizes that China's rise has also brought tremendous changes to China-Japan relations. For Japan, China has transformed from a recipient of aid to an equal partner, and its importance as a market is becoming even more significant than its role as a factory. Furthermore, China's share of world trade continues to expand, and almost all countries and regions have seen an increase in their dependence on China in both imports and exports. Especially for most Asian nations such as Japan, South Korea, Malaysia, and Vietnam, China has become their largest trading partner. In the future, even if China's economic growth rate declines, it will still significantly exceed the global average. Therefore, the dependence of various countries and regions on China will continue to rise. Shin Kawashima, a professor at the University of Tokyo, believes: “In a situation where the international order and balance of power are in a period of transition, China occupies an advantage and will soon leap to the center of the international political stage.” Rumi Aoyama, a professor at Waseda University, believes that China’s active participation in international and regional organizations allows its adherence to internationalism and multilateralism to profoundly affect the peace and stability of Asia. Mitsuru Okada cited the results of a survey released by the Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs in May 2022: In a survey on “ASEAN countries’ views on future important partners,” China jumped to first place with a 48% support rate. Okada further noted that China's share of global GDP grew from 2% in 1988 to 18% in 2021. He further emphasized that the enhancement of China’s international influence stems from its economy rather than its military. Viewed from this perspective, Chinese-path modernization is a modernization that follows the path of peaceful development.
II. On the Success Factors of Chinese-path Modernization
Why has Chinese-path modernization been successful? Japanese scholars have interpreted this from various perspectives—resource-based, international environment, and political—proposing viewpoints such as the “major power scale theory,” the “exogenous drive theory,” the “political stability theory,” the “latecomer advantage theory,” and the “traditional inheritance theory.”
(1) The Major Power Scale Theory General Secretary Xi Jinping emphasized in the report to the 20th National Congress of the CPC that “Chinese-path modernization is the modernization of a huge population.” Japanese scholars recognized the scale advantages of Chinese-path modernization relatively early. Starting from China’s natural resource base and social-demographic conditions, they contend that China’s advantage as a major power is an important factor in its success. Katsuji Nakagane believes that what supports Chinese-path modernization is the advantage of a massive labor force in both quality and quantity. “China is a populous country that can provide a huge supply of labor, and due to the popularization of basic education, the quality of this labor is relatively high.” This has created conditions for the collaboration of industrial division of labor, the completeness of industrial categories, and the economies of scale in production and management. Ryosei Kokubun, Professor Emeritus at Keio University, believes that in addition to population and land area, a profound historical culture gives China an overwhelming advantage in the modernization process. Akio Takahara, analyzing from the perspective of China's comparative advantages, points out: “Most of the Chinese characteristics in national operation and development strategy stem from the country's land area and population size, as well as its potential as a giant market; these conditions are not something other countries can simply imitate.” Mitsu Takahashi, a professor at the University of Tokyo, points out that China’s vast territory and abundance of products and natural resources are major factors supporting China's economic growth and form the basis for the formation of its large-scale economy. Akio Takahara [3] argues that one must see not only the huge scale of China’s population, geographic space, and economic volume but also recognize the richness of its ideological and cultural achievements; only then can one fully understand the impact of Chinese society's ultra-large scale on its modernization.
Of course, while affirming scale advantages, some Japanese scholars also believe that being a major power has its disadvantages. Reiitsu Kojima, a professor at Daito Bunka University, points out that alongside large-scale economic growth, problems such as structural economic imbalances, the difficulty of social transformation, uneven urban-rural development, and the difficulty of controlling the wealth gap within a reasonable range are likely to occur. Indeed, “large population and poor foundation” [4] was the difficulty at the takeoff of China’s modernization. However, as the CPC’s understanding of the laws of modernization has deepened, the path of Chinese-path modernization has gradually turned these disadvantages into advantages as it matured. Especially since the 18th National Congress [5], the Party has led the people to further strengthen top-level design, construct a new development pattern, comprehensively promote rural revitalization, and facilitate coordinated development. The economic structure has been continuously optimized, the quality of economic growth has significantly improved, the urban-rural gap has gradually narrowed, and the world’s largest systems for education, social security, and healthcare have been established. Therefore, the theory of “major power disadvantage” does not hold.
(2) The Exogenous Drive Theory
Japanese scholars argue that the external environment for advancing Chinese-path modernization possesses a degree of stability, thereby ensuring that China’s modernization construction proceeds in an environment free from external interference and shocks. Nakagane Katsuji [6] maintains that the primary reason the Chinese modernization process has been relatively smooth is its achievement of positive economic results; one factor determining these results is favorable environmental conditions—namely, a good international economic environment. "If the global political and economic environment were extremely hostile, then no matter how the Chinese leadership promoted the policy of reform and opening up, it would have been difficult for China's economy to achieve development... If the wave of globalization had not swept over China, bringing a vast amount of new information, technology, and markets from overseas, and if China had not integrated into the global economy, then China's own developmental potential would have been greatly diminished." Professor Obara Masahiro of the University of Tokyo argues: "Beyond the indispensable external condition of a peaceful international environment, China’s economic construction and development also require its own strong military force as a guarantee." The contemporary Japan-based scholar of China studies Kojima Tomoyuki once stated: "China actively carries out multilateral diplomacy, strives to maintain relations with developed countries, and vigorously strengthens unity and cooperation with developing countries, creating a favorable international environment for China’s modernization construction."
Furthermore, some Japanese scholars believe that China’s developmental environment harbors an "unsettling" exogenous factor: the instability and uncertainty of external factors prompt the Chinese government to take proactive measures, thereby assisting the orderly rollout of modernization. Mori Kazuko, Professor Emeritus at Waseda University, believes that the greatest factors in China's rapid economic growth are the international environment, international economic development, and "external pressure" (gaidatsu). Professor Mifune Emi of Chubu University argues that the influence of this "external pressure" serves as an exogenous driving force for China to continuously advance political and social structural reforms during its modernization process. Naito Hiroko of the Japan Area Studies Center and Yamaguchi Mami of the Graduate School of Frontier Sciences also point out: "In an external environment characterized by rising protectionism, a sluggish world economy, and shrinking global markets, the Chinese government has fully leveraged the vast advantages of its domestic market to accelerate the construction of a new development pattern in which domestic circulation is the mainstay and domestic and international dual circulation promote each other to respond to changes in the international economic situation. This is a strategic choice by the Chinese government to strengthen new advantages in international competition and cooperation."
(3) The Political Stability Theory
Japanese scholars believe that the Communist Party of China (CPC) has not only created a miracle of economic development but has also maintained a stable and harmonious political situation, providing the prerequisite conditions for the development of modernization. Nakagane Katsuji argues that since the reform and opening up, "as Chinese politics stabilized and overseas investment became active, China’s potential for economic growth gradually recovered; this, in turn, promoted political stability, forming an even higher growth potential... political ‘stability’ provided the conditions for economic development, and a virtuous cycle formed between the two." Moreover, as China’s level of institutionalization continues to improve, the elements promoting stability are increasing accordingly, providing strong support for modernization construction. Amako Satoshi believes: "China regards political stability as an important prerequisite for ensuring economic development, effectively suppressing any factors that might jeopardize that stability." Nomura Koichi, Professor in the Faculty of Law at Rikkyo University, points out that China’s "goal of achieving rapid industrialization—building a prosperous and strong China—is first and foremost grounded in the foundations of unity and political stability." Kazunaka Kiyoshi also frankly stated: "China’s politics are stable, while Japan remains in a state of chaos. Whether viewed from a political or economic perspective, China has gradually pulled ahead of Japan. This is already an undeniable fact."
Clearly, it is quite reasonable for Japanese academia to regard political stability as an important reason for China’s sustained and rapid development. Successive generations of CPC leaders have treated stability as an overriding political task. The report to the 20th CPC National Congress pointed out once again that the difficulty and complexity of Chinese-path modernization are unprecedented, and therefore it is necessary to "adhere to the principle of seeking progress while maintaining stability, proceeding in a step-by-step and sustained manner." However, some Japanese scholars have suggested that the CPC is more concerned with domestic threats than with protecting the nation from external ones, arguing that the maintenance of the CPC regime is closely linked to the stability of the national order. This view clearly fails to understand the actual operational logic of the Chinese political party system and fails to see the advantages of the system of multi-party cooperation and political consultation led by the CPC. China has neither a "one-party dictatorship" nor the so-called "multi-party system" found in Western countries; rather, it possesses a system of multi-party cooperation and political consultation under the leadership of the CPC, in which all parties adhere to the principles of long-term coexistence, mutual supervision, treating each other with sincerity, and sharing both honor and disgrace.
(4) The Latecomer Advantage Theory
Japanese academia keenly recognizes the "latecomer advantage" inherent in Chinese-path modernization. Professor Yukawa Kazuo of Asia University believes that in the process of advancing modernization, China utilized overseas capital and technology to accelerate its integration into global economic integration. "This allowed China’s productive forces to achieve a leap-forward development. Regarding trade, China shifted from exports centered on developed countries to gradually seeking to open markets in developing countries, while progressively guiding foreign capital toward industrial transfers in inland regions." Amako Satoshi believes that after choosing the policy of reform and opening up, China actively integrated into the international economy. "When capital, advanced technology, and talent were extremely scarce, China actively introduced foreign capital and talent from developed countries, leveraged the power of the overseas Chinese diaspora, and combined these with comparative advantages such as China’s large-scale labor force to build a uniquely advantageous manufacturing base in one stroke." Professor Anami Yusuke of Tohoku University argues that during the modernization process, China successfully utilized the advantageous resources of early-mover nations. Corporations from these nations increasingly turned their attention to China, increasing investment and imports, which became the original driving force of China’s economic development. Minami Ryoshin, Professor Emeritus at Hitotsubashi University, believes: "While introducing foreign capital, China fully utilized it as a vehicle for bringing in advanced technology and management experience, accelerating the elevation of its own domestic technological level." It can be seen that while introducing foreign capital and technology, China also achieved their internal transformation. This latecomer advantage lies in borrowing advanced technology and management experience from countries with mature modernization, allowing the nation's economic activities to quickly enter a standardized, procedural, and stable developmental track.
However, in recent years, as China’s economic growth has slowed, some Japanese scholars and media outlets have begun to drum up the "limit to development theory," arguing that sluggish exports and declining industrial production will restrict investment-led growth. Additionally, they argue the end of the "demographic dividend" will bring China’s economic development to its limit. In reality, such views do not accord with the facts. Despite the context of a global economic recession, where China also faces various risks and challenges, the fundamentals of the Chinese economy—its strong resilience, immense potential, vast room for maneuver, and long-term positive outlook—have not changed. As Tomoyuki Fukumoto, manager of the Bank of Japan's Kitakyushu branch, pointed out after analyzing various data on China’s economic development: "In the future, if there are no major shocks and economic reforms proceed smoothly, even if the Chinese economy slows down gradually, it can still maintain a relatively high growth rate."
(5) The Traditional Inheritance Theory
Japanese scholars have also analyzed the internal operational mechanisms and social effects of Chinese-path modernization through the lens of traditional Chinese culture. They argue that China absorbed the wisdom of traditional culture during its modernization, creating continuity and heritage. Obara Masahiro pointed out: "As a country with profound traditions, the national consciousness and values formed over China’s 5,000-year history are latent in its social foundation, continuously exerting a unique influence on China's modernization construction." Amako Satoshi believes that Chinese leaders, especially Xi Jinping, are adept at drawing governance wisdom from Chinese historical tradition, always "viewing order, governance, and international relations within the context of traditional Chinese thought." Kawashima Shin argues that since the 18th CPC National Congress, Xi Jinping has used a series of concepts rooted in Chinese culture, such as the "Right Approach to Justice and Interests" [7], to explain foreign policies with "Chinese characteristics," helping the world understand China better. "This is an expression of the concept of a new type of international relations focused on 'win-win cooperation,' and the advancement of the 'Belt and Road' Initiative is the actual practice of this important diplomatic concept." Takahashi Nobuo, Professor in the Faculty of Law at Keio University, believes that "on one hand, international rules and norms are profoundly influencing China, but on the other hand, China’s traditional culture exhibits a powerful inertia." Professor Moriyama Akio of Tokyo Woman’s Christian University believes that China attaches great importance to the influence of tradition during its modernization; the continuity of the nation’s tradition, history, and culture allows its modernization to maintain a high degree of national subjectivity. It is commendable that Japanese academia has keenly observed the relationship between Chinese-path modernization and traditional Chinese culture. It must be specified, however, that our inheritance of traditional Chinese culture is by no means an unanalytical "following of old ways" (yīnxí), nor is it a return to Confucian tradition; rather, it is an adherence to the principle of "absorbing the essence and discarding the dross, critical inheritance, and making the past serve the present."
III. Distinctive Characteristics of Chinese-Path Modernization
As a highly modernized nation, Japan’s modernization began earlier than China’s. For a long period, Japanese academia was accustomed to interpreting Chinese-path modernization from a Western-centric perspective. However, with the continuous advancement and expansion of Chinese-path modernization, Japanese scholars have gradually realized that compared to other countries, Chinese-path modernization shares commonalities in developmental laws while also possessing distinctive characteristics in terms of its leadership, mode of growth, practical orientation, and developmental process.
(1) Consciousness of the Leadership Subject
Without the Communist Party of China, there could be no Chinese-path modernization. Japanese academic circles believe the success of Chinese-path modernization lies in the CPC’s high degree of consciousness regarding the fundamental issues of modernization. Shinoda Hideaki, Professor at the Tokyo University of Foreign Studies, points out that since the end of the Cold War, the capitalist world has viewed Marxism as an ideology incapable of bringing about economic development. In response, General Secretary Xi Jinping countered this misunderstanding and bias by stating: "Why is the CPC able, and why is socialism with Chinese characteristics good? In the final analysis, it is because Marxism works, and especially because Sinicized and modernized Marxism works." "The CPC has combined 'fine traditional Chinese culture' with 'Marxism'—two 'great things' neglected by the West—and has achieved great success." Ishida Takashi, a researcher at the International Peace Research Institute of Meiji Gakuin University, stated that although the COVID-19 pandemic and changes in the international situation brought many serious challenges, the CPC did not adopt simplistic solutions such as cutting ties with the outside world or conquering others through hegemonism. Instead, it employed a systems perspective to handle complex situations in a complex manner; the source of this methodology is the "Sinicized and modernized Marxism" mentioned in the report to the 20th CPC National Congress. Kojima Tomoyuki clearly pointed out: "The greatest contemporary task for China is a 'Chinese-path modernization' aimed at modernization—that is, socialist construction based on Chinese characteristics." Okabe Tatsumi, Professor Emeritus at Tokyo Metropolitan University, also noted that China’s modernization development seeks to realize the goal of socialism, which is a positive and healthy fundamental pursuit.
However, some scholars promote the "De-socialization Theory" (tuō shèhuì zhǔyì lùn), arguing that the essential attribute of Chinese-path modernization is not socialism but "capital-socialism," "new bureaucratic capitalism," "authoritarian capitalism," or "state capitalism." These arguments are clearly unsustainable. Addressing the rhetoric that equated a planned economy with socialism and a market economy with capitalism, Deng Xiaoping repeatedly pointed out: "A planned economy is not equivalent to socialism, for there is planning under capitalism too; a market economy is not equivalent to capitalism, for there are markets under socialism too. Both planning and market forces are economic means." The CPC has repeatedly emphasized that reform is the self-improvement and development of the socialist system; it is China’s "second revolution," and the targets of this revolution are all factors hindering the development of productive forces, including "bureaucratism." It resolutely opposes a small number of people using their power for personal gain. General Secretary Xi Jinping emphasized: "Socialism with Chinese characteristics is socialism and not any other 'ism.' The basic principles of scientific socialism cannot be abandoned; if they are abandoned, it is no longer socialism... History and practice tell us that only socialism can save China, and only socialism with Chinese characteristics can develop China. This is the conclusion of history." The "De-socialization Theory" treats socialism as a dead dogma and fails to understand the dialectics of socialist social development; it is clearly a distortion of Chinese-path modernization.
(2) Gradualism of the Growth Mode
The Japanese academic community generally believes that the growth trajectory of Chinese-path modernization follows an incremental model. That is, in the specific operational steps of modernization, China does not adopt a "shock-style" or "campaign-style" approach, but rather a model of gradual advancement—proceeding from the easy to the difficult and from the local to the whole. Nakagane Katsuji argues: "China is a country that has adopted a typical incrementalist transformation strategy; China's rapid economic growth is the result of incrementalism." He further adds: "The policy design of China's economic structural reform possesses a marked incrementality; both China's modernization construction and its economic structural transformation have employed gradual and flexible methods." Mifune Emi believes that China's modernization development is continuously realized through institutionalization. This developmental mode, characterized by incremental policy constraints, can promote social development under the premise of maintaining stability, allowing the adjustment of complex interest relations to be controlled within the scope of social endurance, thereby avoiding violent social upheaval. Kokubun Ryosei points out that in the 1980s, China established four Special Economic Zones in Shenzhen, Zhuhai, Shantou, and Xiamen as windows for introducing foreign capital and pilot sites for learning advanced experience. Subsequently, it gradually opened coastal cities and coastal open areas, further expanding to border areas, riverside areas, and inland provincial capitals. This layer-by-layer advancement model allowed for the formation of a pattern of comprehensive opening up. Amako Satoshi also believes that the modernization transformation of the Chinese economy has distinct incremental characteristics. Taking the process of China's economic structural reform as an example, he argues that major breakthroughs in the economic field first began in agriculture and rural areas. After success was achieved there, the growth of various economic components was promoted along this path, which in turn drove the development of the entire national economy. Miyake Yasuyuki of the Faculty of Foreign Studies at Aichi Prefectural University believes that China's modernization employs incremental reforms, which has allowed the contours of its marketization and internationalization to continuously emerge.
However, some Japanese scholars argue that China has adopted a radical approach in the process of advancing modernization. they believe that under the strong push of the government and the vigorous stimulus of policies, many fields in China have shown explosive growth, but this has also led to phenomena such as excessive industrial development speed, excessive currency issuance, and even economic disorder. They claim the once-prosperous state of the Chinese economy has changed and is now facing serious "sequelae." This line of argument is clearly untenable. In the process of reform, China rejected the West's so-called "shock therapy" [10] and has always emphasized that "stability overrides everything." All aspects have progressed steadily without the phenomenon of sharp fluctuations in economic and social development. In recent years, our country's economic development has entered a New Normal [11] and moved toward a stage of high-quality development with a relatively slowed growth rate, which is completely in line with the laws of development.
(3) Pragmatic orientation characterized by openness
A country's modernization development depends not only on its internal growth mode but also on the breadth and depth of its external interactions. Chinese-path modernization is no exception; it is not closed off but is a process that continuously unfolds within world history. Amako Satoshi believes: "From an economic and social perspective, China is characterized by an open and coordinated globalization." "The Communist Party of China is well aware that China's modernization development cannot be completed by its own strength alone; it must actively integrate into the international community and realize it through cooperation and exchange with other countries as well as deep domestic-international interaction." Professor Kobayashi Takashi of Tokyo International University believes that Chinese-path modernization is following a new development path of "open socialism" that is internationalized and deeply integrated with the capitalist world system. "For China, 'open socialism' is not only a policy currently adopted but also a new form that socialism must inevitably take in the process of modernization development." China advances its modernization construction in the process of opening up to the outside world while adhering to self-reliance, thereby avoiding the path of dependent modernization. Professor Onishi Hiroshi of Keio University points out that China's Belt and Road Initiative is helping developing countries develop and is an important practice for realizing a global version of "common prosperity." Kohara Masahiro believes that the joint construction of the Belt and Road has realized the consultation and cooperation of development policies among participating countries, as well as the integration of trade and capital. Furthermore, the Belt and Road Initiative carries a function of cultural diplomacy, bringing the relations between the people of China and participating countries closer. Aoyama Rumi holds the same view, arguing that "with the improvement of modernization and the expansion of economic strength, China has begun to gradually expand from traditional diplomacy to financial diplomacy, leading the establishment of financial institutions such as the AIIB [12] and actively promoting economic cooperation among various Asian countries and regions."
However, some Japanese scholars view China's active diplomatic actions as the "great power conceit" that follows economic growth, and regard China's actions to safeguard its legitimate interests as being driven by a "victim mentality." This is a distortion of China's international strategy. Since the founding of New China, the CPC has adhered to an independent foreign policy of peace, advocating for world peace and opposing hegemonism while actively learning from the world. Since the beginning of reform and opening up, China has drawn on advanced foreign technology, management experience, market economy experience, national institutional building experience, and political party anti-corruption experience. Since the 18th CPC National Congress, General Secretary Xi Jinping has always upheld the concept of amity, sincerity, mutual benefit, and inclusiveness [13] to deepen cooperation with neighboring countries, pushing bilateral and multilateral relations to become increasingly solid. He actively advocates for building a community with a shared future for humanity, refutes the hegemonic logic of the so-called "zero-sum game" and "a strong country must seek hegemony," and actively participates in the reform and construction of the global governance system, providing Chinese wisdom and Chinese solutions for world development. The so-called "great power conceit theory" regarding China in Japanese academic circles is groundless.
(4) Developmental process characterized by planning
Japanese scholars generally believe that the great achievements of China's modernization construction are highly correlated with the planned nature of its modernization development process. Specifically, unlike the Western modernization model guided by the logic of capital, Chinese-path modernization follows the general laws of modernization development while possessing clear development planning and distinct policy orientations. Professor Kobayashi Koji of the Faculty of Law at Kansai University believes that the CPC constantly explores the laws of modernization development and consciously absorbs the experience of developed Western countries. Nakagane Katsuji points out: "In the long run, the growth process of the Chinese economy basically conforms to the standard model of industrialization and modernization, but China's modernization development has its own characteristics." Professor Tokuda Noriyuki of the University of Tsukuba believes that the CPC possesses comprehensiveness in the overall design of modernization, formulating modernization policies across economic, political, social, and cultural fields. Saionji Kazuteru, a visiting professor at Higashi Nippon International University, notes: "In responding to developmental problems, the CPC has not dogmatically copied Marxism-Leninism, but has combined it with China's specific reality, adhering to principles while remaining adept at assessing the situation." Kondo Daisuke, a lecturer at Meiji University, points out that the report of the 19th CPC National Congress emphasized development in two stages, while the focus of the 20th CPC National Congress report was on how to advance goals within the next five years. In the 20th National Congress report, every policy is specified, placing greater emphasis on the importance of future development and the efforts the CPC must make to achieve its goals.
Yet, some Japanese scholars argue that this planning or policy design is of a "national-integrative" [14] type, merely translating a policy horizontally to other regions to form an "absolute law" of "uniform pace and uniform voice." Other Japanese scholars directly deny the planned nature of China's modernization development, arguing that China's policy formulation and planning suffer from extreme opacity and uncertainty, and that interpretations of rules and judgments of situations vary according to region or population. This is clearly a serious misunderstanding of the CPC's policy planning. In the process of reform and opening up, Chinese Communists have always based their actions on the needs of specific practice, adhering to the principle of "asking the people about governance, asking the people about their needs, and asking the people for wisdom" [15]. All policies and plans are formed on the basis of repeated investigation and discussion and are made public in the form of documents.
IV. Lessons and Enlightenments Regarding Chinese-path Modernization
Through unremitting exploration, the CPC has blazed a modernization path with Chinese characteristics, a fact widely recognized by Japanese scholars. The Japanese academic community has conducted in-depth analyses of the enlightenments provided by Chinese-path modernization from the perspectives of the characteristics of the leadership, the influence of the development model, and the replicability of successful experiences.
(1) The leading force of Chinese-path modernization is full of vitality
How has the CPC been able to successfully advance Chinese-path modernization? Some Japanese scholars attempt to derive answers from the unique political advantages inherent in the CPC itself. Suzuki Takashi points out that under the banner of socialism with Chinese characteristics, the CPC has boldly broken through the shackles of old paradigms, continuously advanced theoretical innovation, and effectively exerted a high degree of political adaptability and innovative power. Saionji Kazuteru believes that as the leading force of Chinese-path modernization, "the reason for the CPC's success lies in its ability to be strict with itself, resolutely stand on the side of the people, and not fear sacrifice or hard struggle, thereby gaining the support of the people." Himekida Mitsuyoshi, Professor Emeritus at Chuo University, points out: "Since the dawn of the modern era, no political force has been able to lead China toward such a bright future; the CPC has fundamentally changed the face of China and the destiny of the Chinese people." Suzuki Takashi also frankly stated: "To date, few political parties have governed as successfully as the CPC. Successive leadership collectives of the CPC have not only been able to maintain the stability of the overall political situation but have also been adept at making active policy adjustments according to the changes of the times." Amako Satoshi emphasizes that Xi Jinping's governance has clear objectives, with the "Two Centenary Goals" [16] inheriting from one another. This plays a decisive role in China's entry into the ranks of innovative countries in fields such as economy and technology, as well as in realizing a Beautiful China and increasing the international influence of Chinese culture. Japanese scholars highly affirm the theoretical creativity, national leadership, and political execution demonstrated by the CPC in the practice of Chinese-path modernization, regarding these as the keys to its success in both theory and practice.
(2) The development model of Chinese-path modernization is highly influential
Chinese-path modernization has successfully created a developmental model different from that of Western countries and provided a brand-new choice for other developing countries to move toward modernization. Some Japanese scholars believe that the advancement of the Chinese-path modernization model has profoundly influenced the world and brought opportunities for the development of other countries. Professor Masuo Chisako of Kyushu University believes: "The development of modernization began with the Industrial Revolution in 18th-century Europe, passed through the United States and Japan, then reached the economic development of East Asian countries including China, until it expanded to countries like India and East Africa in this century. Now, accompanied by the relative decline of Europe, America, and Japan—and especially the rise of countries like China—it has become possible for the world to move toward multipolarity and seek a just and reasonable international order." Kohara Masahiro points out: "It is an indisputable fact that China's economic development has become the engine of growth for Asia and the world; the continuously expanding Chinese market provides opportunities for Japan." Wanaka Kiyoshi points out that if Japanese companies could have recognized the opportunities brought by the rise of the Chinese market earlier and more clearly, and caught the "fast train" of China's economic development faster and better, the Japanese economy might have avoided the "Lost 20 Years." In the future, the Chinese economy will inevitably become a huge driving force for Japan's economic development. "The China that amazes the world is the key to Japan's rebirth." Hirano Katsumi, Director of the Japan External Trade Organization (JETRO), believes that China has grown from a low-income country to the world's leading manufacturing power. Its powerful production capacity provides a large quantity of basic consumer goods for countries worldwide, which is itself an embodiment of the international development concept of achieving prosperity for all humanity. Amako Satoshi points out that China has become a powerful great power. Since entering the 21st century, with its powerful economic, military, and diplomatic strength, it has become a protagonist on the world stage with unstoppable momentum. Professor Kizaki Midori of the Faculty of Economics at Yokohama National University points out that with the development of modernization and marketization, the Chinese economy has gained strong competitiveness in the global commodity market. Professor Kayahara Ikuo of the Faculty of International Development at Takushoku University points out that the future orientation of China's national defense modernization is to safeguard world peace and promote world multipolarity, rather than building a military hegemonic power. Clearly, the Japanese academic community recognizes the contribution of Chinese-path modernization to world development from different perspectives.
(3) The successful experience of Chinese-path modernization is full of creativity
Many Japanese scholars have recognized the universal significance of the successful experience of Chinese-path modernization and hope to find a way out of Japan's current developmental dilemmas by excavating these vivid experiences. Kenji Hattori, a professor at Chuo University, points out that for the Japanese economy, the value of the Chinese market lies in the scale and development of China's economy; China's GDP was twice that of Japan in 2014. Around 2025, China is likely to surpass the United States. Given such forecasts, Japan must formulate its own economic revitalization policies based on China's economic development trends, because "China's development is Japan's development, and Japan's development is China's development." Shin Kawashima believes that China's rise has epochal significance for the world order, and that China is playing the role of a shaper of a new order in East Asia and even the world. As China is the world’s second-largest economy and the leading power in East Asia, Japan should join hands with China to play a role in maintaining international order. Hiroko Naito and Mami Yamaguchi noted: "After the sudden onset of the COVID-19 pandemic, Chinese enterprises resumed work and production in an orderly manner under the guidance of national economic policies... causing the sluggish economy of early 2021 to recover rapidly, and the economy, which had suffered negative growth due to the pandemic crisis, returned to normal by the end of the year." Hitoshi Hirakawa, a professor at Nagoya University, stated frankly that China adopted a series of effective countermeasures when facing difficulties such as the COVID-19 pandemic and regional conflicts, turning crises into opportunities and providing experience for other countries to emerge from the shadow of crisis. Hideo Ohashi points out that as the external environment becomes increasingly severe, China has striven to transition from an investment- and export-led economic model to a domestic demand-led economic model. It has persisted in the strategy of expanding domestic demand, strengthening the endogenous engine of development, promoting industrial structure transformation, resolving overcapacity, and increasing the intensity of macro-control to ensure the smooth operation of the economy. From this, it can be seen that the Japanese academic community's analysis of China's developmental experience and future development trends possesses a certain degree of revelatory significance.
This article is a periodic achievement of the Major Project of the National Social Science Fund of China, "Research on the Historical Logic and Original Contributions of the Sinicization of Marxist Philosophy," and the 2021 Zhejiang University School of Marxism Graduate Research Support Program. (Authors: Cheng Long, School of Marxism, Zhejiang University; Center for the Study of Socialism with Chinese Characteristics, Zhejiang University; Zhejiang University Research Base of the Zhejiang Provincial Center for the Study of the Theoretical System of Socialism with Chinese Characteristics. Zhang Le, School of Marxism, Zhejiang University.) Online Editor: Lianyu Source: Foreign Theoretical Trends (《国外理论动态》), Issue 1, 2023.