Xin Xiangyang and Chen Zhigang: The Formation and Development of Socialism with Chinese Characteristics
Upholding and developing Chinese-path socialism is the major theme of our times that Xi Jinping Thought on Socialism with Chinese Characteristics for a New Era has explored in depth and answered scientifically. On January 5, 2018, in an important speech delivered at a seminar for new members and alternate members of the Central Committee and principal provincial-level leading officials to study and implement Xi Jinping Thought on Socialism with Chinese Characteristics for a New Era and the spirit of the 19th CPC National Congress, General Secretary Xi Jinping systematically expounded on the historical process of the formation and development of Chinese-path socialism. He profoundly elucidated its historical position within the history of socialist development and clearly pointed out that upholding and developing Chinese-path socialism must be carried out consistently through to the end.
I. The Historical Origins, Initiation, and Development of Chinese-path Socialism
Marx once said: "Men make their own history, but they do not make it as they please; they do not make it under self-selected circumstances, but under circumstances existing already, given and transmitted from the past." In his important speech at the seminar for new members and alternate members of the Central Committee and provincial-level officials, General Secretary Xi Jinping clearly pointed out: "Socialism with Chinese characteristics did not fall from the sky. It was derived from the great practice of 40 years of reform and opening up; from the continuous exploration during the nearly 70 years since the founding of the People's Republic of China; from the 97-year practice of the Party leading the people in the great social revolution; from the historical process of over 170 years since the modern era began, during which the Chinese nation went from decline to prosperity; and from the inheritance and development of 5,000 years of Chinese civilization. It is a precious achievement won by the Party and the people through arduous struggle and at various costs."
Chinese-path socialism has emerged from over 5,000 years of Chinese civilization. The path of Chinese-path socialism that China follows today is inseparable from these 5,000 years. Chinese civilization has a long history and is the only civilization in the world that has continued uninterrupted to the present day. This profound cultural accumulation embodies the deepest spiritual pursuits of the Chinese nation and serves as rich nourishment for its continuous growth and vitality. The unique historical traditions and cultural accumulation of the Chinese nation dictate that China’s development path must inevitably possess its own characteristics. In October 2014, while presiding over the 18th collective study session of the Political Bureau of the CPC Central Committee, General Secretary Xi Jinping emphasized: "It is no accident that we opened up the path of Chinese-path socialism; it was determined by our country's historical inheritance and cultural traditions." In March 2021, during an inspection in Fujian, the General Secretary further emphasized: "Without the 5,000-year-old Chinese civilization, where would 'Chinese characteristics' come from? If not for these characteristics, how could we have the successful path of Chinese-path socialism we have today?" China possesses firm confidence in its path, theory, and system; in essence, this is cultural confidence built upon the foundation of 5,000 years of civilizational inheritance. Fine traditional Chinese culture provides powerful spiritual strength for realizing the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation and contains important insights for solving the difficult problems facing modern humanity. Only by attaching importance to tapping into the essence of 5,000 years of Chinese civilization, promoting the creative transformation and innovative development of fine traditional Chinese culture, and combining its essence with the Marxist standpoint, viewpoint, and method, can we provide rich nourishment for upholding and developing Chinese-path socialism.
Chinese-path socialism is the inevitable choice of Chinese social development in the modern era. General Secretary Xi Jinping pointed out: "Socialism with Chinese characteristics carries the ideals and explorations of generations of Chinese Communists, embodies the wishes and expectations of countless people of vision and integrity [1], and condenses the struggles and sacrifices of millions of revolutionary martyrs, as well as the struggles and practices of the people of all ethnic groups. It is the inevitable choice for Chinese social development in the modern era, and the choice of history and the people." After the Opium War, China gradually became a semi-colonial and semi-feudal society; the country suffered humiliation, the people suffered hardships, and the civilization was covered in dust. To save the nation from peril and achieve national revitalization, the Chinese people engaged in epic struggles. The Taiping Heavenly Kingdom Movement, the Western Affairs Movement [2], the Reform Movement of 1898, the Boxer Movement, and the Revolution of 1911 arose one after another, and various schemes for national salvation were introduced in turn, but all ended in failure. History has proven that self-strengthening movements that do not touch the old social foundations, reformisms of various names, old-style peasant wars, democratic revolutions led by bourgeois revolutionaries, and various schemes that mechanically copied Western political system models could not complete the historical task of national salvation, nor could they achieve anti-imperialist and anti-feudal goals. They could not stabilize China's political and social situation, nor could they provide the institutional guarantee for China to achieve national prosperity and the people's happiness. Both history and reality tell us that only socialism can save China, only socialism can develop China, and only by upholding and developing Chinese-path socialism can we realize the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation. This is the conclusion of history and the choice of the people.
Chinese-path socialism was derived from over 70 years of continuous exploration since the founding of the People's Republic of China. For over 100 years, all the struggles, sacrifices, and creations of the Chinese Communist Party in uniting and leading the Chinese people can be summarized into one theme: realizing the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation. Following one's own path is the fundamental starting point of all the Party's theory and practice, and it is the historical conclusion drawn from the Party's century of struggle. After the founding of New China, the Party united and led the people in carrying out socialist revolution and advancing socialist construction, laying the fundamental political prerequisites and institutional foundations for realizing the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation. During this period, Comrade Mao Zedong proposed a "second horizontal combination" of the basic principles of Marxism-Leninism with China's specific realities [3]. The Chinese Communists, with Comrade Mao Zedong as their chief representative, enriched and developed Mao Zedong Thought in light of new realities, proposing a series of important ideas regarding socialist construction. These included the ideas that socialist society is a very long historical stage; that we must strictly distinguish between and correctly handle contradictions between ourselves and the enemy and those among the people; that we must correctly handle the "ten major relationships" in our country's socialist construction; and the need to blaze a trail for industrialization suited to our country's conditions while respecting the law of value. These provided precious experience, theoretical preparation, and the material basis for initiating Chinese-path socialism in the new historical period.
Chinese-path socialism was initiated, defended, upheld, and developed during the period of reform and opening up. After the Third Plenary Session of the 11th CPC Central Committee, the Chinese Communists, with Comrade Deng Xiaoping as their chief representative, profoundly summarized both positive and negative experiences since the founding of New China. Focusing on the fundamental questions of "what is socialism" and "how to build it," and drawing on the historical experience of world socialism, they created Deng Xiaoping Theory. This theory profoundly revealed the essence of socialism, established the basic line for the primary stage of socialism, and clearly proposed following our own path to build socialism with Chinese characteristics. It scientifically answered a series of basic questions regarding the construction of Chinese-path socialism and formulated a "three-step" development strategy to basically achieve socialist modernization by the mid-21st century, successfully initiating Chinese-path socialism. After the Fourth Plenary Session of the 13th CPC Central Committee, the Chinese Communists, with Comrade Jiang Zemin as their chief representative, deepened their understanding of what socialism is and how to build it, as well as what kind of Party to build and how to build it, forming the Theory of Three Represents. In the face of severe tests characterized by complex domestic and international situations and serious setbacks for world socialism [4], they defended Chinese-path socialism. They established the reform objectives and basic framework for the socialist market economy system, and consolidated the basic economic system for the primary stage of socialism—where public ownership remains dominant while multiple forms of ownership develop together—and the distribution system where distribution according to work is dominant while multiple modes of distribution coexist. They opened a new chapter of comprehensive reform and opening up, advanced the "new great project of Party building," and successfully pushed Chinese-path socialism into the 21st century. After the 16th CPC National Congress, the Chinese Communists, with Comrade Hu Jintao as their chief representative, profoundly recognized and answered major questions such as what kind of development to achieve and how to achieve it under new circumstances. They formed the Scientific Outlook on Development, emphasizing the people-centered approach and comprehensive, coordinated, and sustainable development. They focused on ensuring and improving people’s livelihoods, promoted social fairness and justice, and advanced the building of the Party’s governing capacity and its vanguard nature, successfully upholding and developing Chinese-path socialism under new conditions.
Direction determines the path, and the path determines destiny. Chinese-path socialism has been the theme of all the Party's theory and practice since the beginning of reform and opening up. It is the dialectical unity of the theoretical logic of scientific socialism and the historical logic of China's social development. It is a scientific socialism rooted in Chinese soil, reflecting the will of the Chinese people, and adapting to the requirements of the development and progress of China and the times. Chinese-path socialism is socialism, and not any other "ism." Chinese-path socialism adheres to the basic principles of scientific socialism while continuously imbuing them with distinct practical, theoretical, national, and epochal characteristics. In the great practice of reform and opening up, the Party has united and led the people in forging ahead on the path of Chinese-path socialism, achieving a historic transformation from a highly centralized planned economy system to a vibrant socialist market economy system, and from being closed or semi-closed to all-around opening up. It has achieved a historic breakthrough from relatively backward productive forces to becoming the world's second-largest economy, and a historic leap in the people's lives from inadequate food and clothing to a generally well-off society, and now toward a moderately prosperous society in all respects. This has enabled our country to catch up with the times in a series of great strides.
II. The New Era Has Opened a Brand New Realm for Chinese-path Socialism
Since the 18th CPC National Congress, Chinese-path socialism has entered a New Era. The CPC Central Committee with Comrade Xi Jinping at its core has adopted a series of strategic measures, promoted a series of transformative practices, achieved a series of breakthrough advances, and attained a series of landmark results. It has solved many difficult problems that remained long unresolved, accomplished many major events concerning long-term interests, and withstood the tests of risks and challenges from political, economic, ideological, and natural fronts. This has driven the cause of the Party and the state to achieve historical achievements and undergo historical changes, opening up a brand new realm for Chinese-path socialism.
The great changes of the decade in the New Era have demonstrated the powerful vitality and vigor of Chinese-path socialism. The hearts of the Party, the military, and the people have converged and been inspired as never before, providing a more refined institutional guarantee, a more solid material foundation, and a more proactive spiritual force for the realization of the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation. Over the past 10 years, the CPC Central Committee with Comrade Xi Jinping at its core, with immense political courage and wisdom, has proposed that the general goal of comprehensively deepening reform is to improve and develop the system of Chinese-path socialism and to modernize China's system and capacity for governance. Focusing on further liberating the mind, liberating and developing social productive forces, and liberating and enhancing social vitality, the leadership has strengthened top-level design and overall planning. It has pushed reform to exert force across the board, achieve breakthroughs at multiple points, move with "swift yet steady steps" [5], and advance in depth. Historical changes, systemic reshaping, and holistic restructuring have been achieved in many fields, providing a more refined institutional guarantee for the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation. Over the past 10 years, we have achieved the goal of building a moderately prosperous society in all respects as scheduled, solving the problem of absolute poverty that had troubled the Chinese nation for thousands of years. The balance, coordination, and sustainability of our country's economic development have been significantly enhanced; GDP has surpassed the 100-trillion-yuan mark, and per capita GDP has exceeded 10,000 US dollars. The country’s economic strength, technological strength, and comprehensive national power have reached new heights. Our economy has embarked on a path of development that is of higher quality, more efficient, more equitable, more sustainable, and more secure, providing a more solid material foundation for the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation. Over the past 10 years, we have established and adhered to the fundamental system of Marxism’s guiding position in the ideological field. An overarching and fundamental change has taken place in the situation of our country’s ideological field. The cultural confidence of the whole Party and the people of all ethnic groups has been significantly strengthened, and the cohesion and centripetal force of the entire society have been greatly enhanced, providing a more proactive spiritual force for the realization of the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation.
General Secretary Xi Jinping, in his important speech at the seminar for provincial and ministerial-level leading officials themed "Studying the Spirit of General Secretary Xi Jinping’s Important Speeches, Welcoming the 20th Party Congress," pointed out: "Practice tells us that why the Communist Party of China 'works,' and why socialism with Chinese characteristics is 'good,' is ultimately because Marxism 'functions.' Since the 18th Party Congress, new changes in domestic and international situations and new developments in practice have urgently required us to provide in-depth answers to a series of major theoretical and practical questions. We have persisted in combining the basic tenets of Marxism with China’s specific realities and with the fine traditional Chinese culture, forming Xi Jinping Thought on Socialism with Chinese Characteristics for a New Era, achieving a new leap in the Sinicization of Marxism." Xi Jinping Thought on Socialism with Chinese Characteristics for a New Era is contemporary Chinese Marxism, twenty-first-century Marxism, and the essence of Chinese culture and the Chinese spirit in our times; it has made many major original contributions to scientific socialism. For example, it put forward the major judgment that socialism with Chinese characteristics has entered a New Era, enriching and developing the theory of the stages of socialist development; it proposed that the principal contradiction in Chinese society in the New Era has been transformed into the contradiction between the people’s ever-growing needs for a better life and unbalanced and inadequate development, enriching and developing the theory of socialist contradictions; it revealed the essence and characteristics of the path of Chinese-path modernization and proposed strategic arrangements for comprehensively building a great modern socialist country, enriching and developing the theory of socialist modernization; it emphasized that the total goal of comprehensively deepening reform is to improve and develop the system of socialism with Chinese characteristics and to promote the modernization of the state governance system and governance capacity, revealing the significant advantages of our national system and governance system, and enriching and developing the Marxist doctrine of state governance; it proposed the major concept of whole-process people's democracy, enriching and developing Marxist democratic theory; it emphasized upholding the guiding position of Marxism in the ideological field, enriching and developing Marxist ideological theory; it proposed cultural self-confidence, emphasized combining the basic tenets of Marxism with fine traditional Chinese culture, and promoted the creative transformation and innovative development of fine traditional Chinese culture, enriching and developing Marxist thought on cultural construction; it proposed the promotion of the common values of humanity and the building of a community with a shared future for humanity, enriching and developing the Marxist theory of world history; it proposed a new form of human civilization, enriching and developing Marxist theory on civilization; and it proposed upholding and strengthening the overall leadership of the Party, persisting in comprehensively and strictly governing the Party, and promoting self-revolution, enriching and developing the Marxist doctrine of Party building; and so forth. All of these highlight our Party's innovation and creation regarding scientific socialist theory and reflect the distinct character of our Party in unswervingly promoting theoretical innovation. The great achievements in the cause of the Party and the state in the New Era fully prove the scientific nature, truth, and practical power of Xi Jinping Thought on Socialism with Chinese Characteristics for a New Era.
III. Socialism with Chinese Characteristics is the Only Correct Path to Realize the Great Rejuvenation of the Chinese Nation
Engels once said: "The so-called 'socialist society' is not something immutable. Rather, like every other social order, it should be considered as destined to be subject to change and transformation." In the great practice of more than 40 years of reform and opening up, the Party has united and led the people in persisting in and developing socialism with Chinese characteristics, promoting the coordinated development of material, political, spiritual, social, and ecological civilizations, successfully forging the path of Chinese-path modernization, and creating a new form of human civilization. From 1978 to 2021, China's Gross Domestic Product (GDP) leapt from 364.5 billion yuan to 114.4 trillion yuan, and its share of the world economy rose from 1.73% to over 18%. From 1978 to 2021, per capita GDP has continuously increased, leaping from 156 US dollars (equivalent to 381 yuan) to 12,551 US dollars, successfully transitioning from a low-income country to the ranks of upper-middle-income countries. In recent years, China's contribution to world economic growth has reached about 30%, increasingly becoming the source of power and the anchor of stability for world economic growth. Facts eloquently prove that China has not failed socialism, and socialism has not failed China.
In the New Era and on the new journey, facing the overall strategy of the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation and the Great Changes Unseen in a Century [6], and facing a great struggle with many new historical characteristics, if the Party is to realize its historical mission in the New Era at its new historical juncture, the most fundamental requirement is to hold high the great banner of socialism with Chinese characteristics. General Secretary Xi Jinping pointed out: "In realizing the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation, the path is the most fundamental issue. Socialism with Chinese characteristics is the only correct path to realize the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation. This path conforms to China's reality, reflects the will of the Chinese people, and adapts to the requirements of the times; it is not only correct and feasible, but it will also surely be walked steadily and well." As long as we unswervingly follow the path of socialism with Chinese characteristics, neither taking the old path of closed-off stagnation [7] nor the evil path of changing flags and banners [8], we will surely be able to achieve the goal of comprehensively building a great modern socialist country.
The great practice of socialism with Chinese characteristics proves that there is neither a single modernization model set in stone [9] nor a universal modernization standard that fits all cases. The modernization we are promoting is a socialist modernization led by the Communist Party of China; we must persist in promoting the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation through Chinese-path modernization. The success of socialism with Chinese characteristics has not only profoundly changed China but has also profoundly changed the trends and landscape of world development, expanding the paths for developing countries to move toward modernization and providing a brand-new choice for those countries and nations in the world that wish to speed up their development while maintaining their own independence. The new form of human civilization created by the Communist Party of China on the basis of the path of Chinese-path modernization has expanded the path of human civilization's development, changed its structure, and led its orientation. General Secretary Xi Jinping pointed out: "The success of scientific socialism in China is of great significance to Marxism and scientific socialism, and to world socialism." The success of socialism with Chinese characteristics declares the obsolescence of the "obsolescence of Marxism" theory, the end of the "end of socialism" theory [10], and the collapse of the "China collapse" theory as advocated by Western scholars after the drastic changes in the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe. It allows Marxism to present itself to the world with a brand-new image and causes a major shift in favor of socialism in the historical evolution and contest between the two ideologies and social systems of socialism and capitalism on a global scale.
Through arduous exploration and practice, the Chinese people have found, persisted in, and expanded the path of socialism with Chinese characteristics; now we must persist in and develop socialism with Chinese characteristics consistently, promoting the path of socialism with Chinese characteristics to become broader and broader. General Secretary Xi Jinping profoundly pointed out that "persisting in and developing socialism with Chinese characteristics is a great article," and "the task of our generation of Communists is to continue writing this great article." On the basis of deeply grasping the scientific nature and truth of socialism with Chinese characteristics, we must strengthen our confidence in the path, theory, system, and culture [11], dare to overcome all difficulties and challenges on the road ahead, and continuously open up new prospects for the cause of socialism with Chinese characteristics.
(The authors' affiliation: Research Center for Xi Jinping Thought on Socialism with Chinese Characteristics for a New Era, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences)