Wang Xuedian: The Junzi in Chinese Culture
In the vast historical river of Huaxia civilization, while there is no shortage of illustrious emperors and generals, nor a lack of heroic figures who achieved monumental feats, no single category of person represents the deepest moral ideals and personality pursuits of the Chinese nation as centrally as the "Junzi" (gentleman/exemplary person). From the imagery of the character Jun (君) in oracle bone inscriptions—depicting a hand holding a scepter—to the philosophical expressions in the Book of Changes (I Ching)—"As heaven’s movement is ever vigorous, so the Junzi must constantly strive for self-perfection; as earth's condition is receptive, so the Junzi should sustain all things with great virtue"—the concept of the Junzi has undergone a long evolution from an aristocratic title under the patriarchal clan system to a model of personality. It eventually became a spiritual symbol that transcends class and eras. To deeply understand Junzi culture is not only to grasp the mainstream pulse of Chinese culture but to understand Chinese culture itself.
The Junzi Emerging from the Depths of History
The term "Junzi" has existed since antiquity, appearing frequently in classical texts as early as the Pre-Qin period. Originally, "Junzi" was used to refer to the noble class of high status, emphasizing bloodline identity and political strata. In the Book of Documents (Shangshu), the term "Junzi" in the phrase "The Junzi should not indulge in ease" refers to King Cheng of Zhou; here, the term is a political title similar to "Prince," "Scion of a Duke," or "Shi-dafu" (scholar-official) [1]. Consequently, Junzi was often used in conjunction with Shi-dafu, referred to as "Shi-Junzi." In the Book of Songs (Shijing), "Junzi" was frequently used to designate noble men, such as in the "Ode to the River Qi": "There is our elegant Junzi / As from the knife and the file / As from the chisel and the polisher"; or in the "Ode to the Male Pheasant": "All you Junzi / Know not virtuous conduct." During this period, the concept primarily focused on status attributes and had not yet been endowed with a clear internal character.
It was Confucius who endowed "Junzi" with profound moral connotations. He transformed the Junzi from an exclusive title for the aristocracy into a universal moral ideal of personality. Confucius proposed that "the Junzi cherishes virtue, while the petty person (Xiao-ren) cherishes land; the Junzi cherishes the law, while the petty person cherishes favors," emphasizing that the Junzi should take morality as the foundation of their life. He stated, "The Junzi is conversant with righteousness, while the petty person is conversant with profit," clarifying the essential difference in value orientations. Furthermore, "The Junzi is calm and at ease; the petty person is always full of anxiety," revealing the Junzi's open and upright spiritual realm.
Mencius, of the Confucian school, further developed Confucius's doctrine of the Junzi by proposing the "Da-zhang-fu" (Great Man) ideal: "Neither riches nor honors can corrupt him; neither poverty nor humbleness can shift his purpose; neither power nor force can bend him." This established a towering image of the Junzi standing upright between heaven and earth, elevating the spiritual character of the Junzi to a higher realm. Xunzi, proceeding from a theory of human nature, emphasized that through posthumous learning and cultivation, anyone could become a Junzi: "The man in the street can become a Yu" [2]. At this point, the Junzi was no longer the exclusive preserve of a few aristocrats; through the theoretical reconstruction of the Confucian school—which imbued the term with the ideal of the "person of benevolence" (Ren-zhe)—it became a paradigm of personality that everyone could pursue.
Human beings possess various characters and qualities, and some individuals naturally possess Junzi-like traits. Once the Pre-Qin thinkers, represented by Confucius and Mencius, determined the basic moral personality of the Junzi—endowing it with the "Five Constants" (benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom, and trustworthiness) and value qualities including introspection, self-perfection, establishing oneself to help others, harmony without uniformity [3], gentleness and honesty, and tolerance—and proposed the fundamental path of self-shaping and self-expectation, the image of the Junzi and Junzi culture flourished within Huaxia culture. It was passed down to later generations, becoming a personality type collectively respected and yearned for by people across all social strata throughout history.
Driven by ancient sages, the Junzi completed the transformation from a "title of nobility" to a "title of virtue." Junzi culture broke through the shackles of hereditary bloodlines, and the Junzi became a spiritual state attainable through self-cultivation (xiushen). The Junzi personality thereafter became a form of virtue ethics and internal pursuit. This internal ethics, through expansion and development, constructed a whole set of moral and behavioral norms, which in turn guided the ideal behavior of the Junzi across different dimensions: the individual, the family, society, and the state. It can be said that the standards of the Junzi personality shaped the cultural traditions and national spirit of the Chinese people.
From Jade to Benevolence: The Image and Essence of the Junzi
"Thinking of the Junzi, he is mild like jade." Ancient people used the warm, moist, and peaceful texture of jade as a metaphor for the Junzi. According to the Book of Rites (Liji), Confucius used jade to symbolize the various virtues of the Junzi: its warmth symbolizes the benevolence of broad-mindedness; its fine texture symbolizes the wisdom of deep thought; its sharp edges symbolize the righteousness of uprightness; its hanging appearance symbolizes the propriety of dignity. Jade may have flaws, but they do not obscure its beauty, much like the Junzi who is open and upright. A piece of raw jade must undergo cutting, filing, chiseling, and polishing to become a beautiful vessel; a Junzi must likewise undergo self-restraint, cultivation, and the tempering of their will and practice to achieve their personality.
In the literary tradition, the plum blossom, orchid, bamboo, and chrysanthemum are called the "Four Junzi among flowers." Ancient literati admired their qualities of tenacity, indifference to fame and wealth, humility and integrity, and the ability to withstand frost in seclusion, thus viewing them as symbols of the Junzi. Confucius praised the fragrant orchid in the secluded valley as "the fragrance fit for a king." The orchid grows in deep forests and does not cease to be fragrant just because no one is there to smell it; the Junzi cultivates the Dao and establishes virtue, and does not change their integrity due to poverty. The orchid is like the Junzi who "is not vexed even if others do not recognize them." Zheng Banqiao once wrote a famous couplet: "The hollow-hearted bamboo has leaves that bow low; the proud-boned plum has no flowers that face upward." To have integrity yet remain humble, to have "proud bones" yet not be overbearing—these were the qualities a Junzi must possess in the eyes of traditional Chinese literati.
Jade and the "Four Junzi among flowers" represent the demeanor and character of the Junzi, and are thus beloved by Chinese people. As for what the demeanor and image of a Junzi should be, there were systematic discussions in the Pre-Qin period, specifically the "Nine Virtues" recorded in the Book of Documents: "lenient yet majestic, mild yet firm, straightforward yet respectful, orderly yet cautious, docile yet resolute, straightforward yet warm, simple yet pure, hard yet principled, strong yet righteous." A Junzi should be magnanimous yet serious, mild yet possessing their own opinions, humble yet solemn, capable yet prudent, open-minded yet decisive, upright yet gentle in attitude, focusing on the big picture while attending to details, upright in character yet not reckless, and strong and brave yet honest and righteous.
Beyond these external expressions of demeanor, image, and character, what is the essence of the Junzi? Or rather, what is the core characteristic that determines whether a person is a Junzi? In our history, there has been no lack of eccentric and expressive figures, such as Qu Yuan wandering by the river or the bold and unconstrained Su Dongpo. The behavior of these figures may not fit the descriptions of the Junzi found in classical texts, yet they have been loved and esteemed by the masses throughout the ages, and everyone calls them Junzi. This is because the core quality of the Junzi personality in Chinese culture is "Ren" (benevolence).
Confucius said: "If the Junzi abandons benevolence, how can he fulfill his name? The Junzi does not violate benevolence even for the space of a single meal; in moments of haste, he acts according to it; in times of danger, he acts according to it." This means that if a Junzi loses their heart of benevolence, how can they still be considered a Junzi? A Junzi never violates the way of benevolence, not even in emergencies or during displacement. From this, we see that Confucius regarded benevolence as the internal and fundamental characteristic of the Junzi personality. The Junzi treats others with a heart of benevolence, extending their own feelings to others and putting themselves in another's shoes. This heart of benevolence is not a narrow, private affection or desire; it is compassion and concern for all people under heaven, a sympathy for humanity and all life. Mencius's ideal of "honoring the elderly of others as one honors one's own, and caring for the young of others as one cares for one's own"; Fan Zhongyan’s sentiment of "being the first to worry about the world's worries and the last to enjoy the world's joys"; and Zhang Zai’s responsibility of "establishing the heart of Heaven and Earth, and establishing the mission for the living people"—these are all repeated portraits of the Junzi’s heart of benevolence. The Junzi not only harbors benevolence but also practices it through practical action, helping those in distress and upholding justice; they are great classical humanists. The "Great Harmony of All Under Heaven" (Tianxia Datong) imagined by Chinese cultural tradition is the ultimate form of the Junzi’s heart of benevolence extended to its limit.
Sincerity, Rectitude, and Self-Cultivation: Nuturing the Junzi Personality
"As heaven’s movement is ever vigorous, so the Junzi must constantly strive for self-perfection"; "The Junzi broadens his knowledge of the words and deeds of the ancients to nourish his virtue." The Commentary on the Book of Changes states that the Junzi should strive for self-perfection and "nourish" their virtue through unremitting effort. This indicates that a person can become a Junzi through continuous self-nurturing.
The Confucian school had already clearly proposed a systematic path for the self-cultivation of the Junzi personality during the Pre-Qin era, which underwent continuous theoretical refinement and practical exploration after the Han Dynasty. The Analects records Confucius’s instruction to his son, Kong Li: "If you do not study the Odes, you will have nothing to use in speech"; "If you do not study the Rites, you will have nothing to stand on." What Confucius meant by "speech" and "standing" corresponds to what Song Dynasty Confucians called the "minor learning" phase of "sprinkling and sweeping, responding to others, and the etiquette of advance and retreat." After the classic The Great Learning (Daxue) was elevated in status, the requirements of "speech" and "standing" further developed into the norms of "sincerity" (cheng) and "rectitude" (zheng). The "making thoughts sincere" and "rectifying the heart" prescribed by The Great Learning became almost essential paths for the Junzi's self-cultivation—what Song Confucians called the "method of teaching people" and the "gateway to virtue." That is to say, the Junzi achieves the fundamental goal of "self-cultivation" through the path of "sincerity of thought" and "rectification of heart," for "self-cultivation lies in rectifying one's heart."
Among these, "sincere thoughts" corresponds to Confucius's advocacy of "introspection without guilt." Xunzi believed that "the Junzi finds nothing better for nourishing the heart than sincerity." Sincerity is the best way to rectify the heart. Confucians advocate that "sincerity" means having a clear conscience, being at peace, and not deceiving oneself. Sincerity is an inner state; it is "the Junzi being calm and at ease." Precisely because they have reached the realm of "introspection without guilt," their state of mind can be broad and level, leading to ease of body and mind. Only a sincere Junzi dares to be like the description in the Vegetable Root Discourse (Caigentan): "The mind of a Junzi is like the blue sky and the white sun; it should not be kept from the knowledge of others," showing their sincere heart to others without reservation.
Through "sincerity of thought," one ensures that "this heart is always preserved," thereby enabling the regulation of one's nature and the achievement of self-cultivation. The internal psychological world of a Junzi should be a state where "the benevolent are not worried, the wise are not perplexed, and the brave are not afraid." At the same time, "the nature belonging to the Junzi—benevolence, righteousness, propriety, and wisdom—is rooted in the heart." The noble personality traits of the "Five Constants" can all be cultivated therefrom. Consequently, the Chinese sages’ advocacy for the Junzi to cultivate themselves through sincerity and rectitude was an attempt to take the Junzi with a perfected moral personality as a starting point, continuously extending outward to others, to the family, to friends, and to the nation, thereby shaping an ideal civilization and order.
The Nourishment of the Chinese Nation by Junzi Culture
The Chinese people's esteem for the Junzi is precisely due to cultural guidance and shaping. Since the "dismissal of the hundred schools and exclusive exaltation of Confucianism" in the Han Dynasty, Confucianism emerged from the contention of a hundred schools of thought to gradually become the spiritual mainstay maintaining social order. By the Tang and Song Dynasties, statesmen creatively constructed the Imperial Examination system with Confucian classics at its core. This not only broke down class barriers but also built an institutional bridge for the dissemination of Confucian culture. Through the Imperial Examinations, the Junzi's pursuit of "cultivating oneself, regulating the family, governing the state, and bringing peace to the world," and the value system of the "Five Constants," moved from the imperial courts into the streets and alleys, becoming deeply bound with the life pursuits of ordinary people. Junzi culture thus soaked into the texture of rural society like spring rain, causing traditional small-peasant society to accept the nourishment of Junzi culture and gradually merge into the mainstream of the Chinese national culture. By the Song Dynasty, as The Great Learning was elevated to one of the "Four Books," the path of "investigating things, extending knowledge, sincerity of thought, rectification of the heart, self-cultivation, regulation of the family, governance of the state, and peace for the world" became the universal pursuit of Chinese scholars. The Junzi personality shaped by the sages of various dynasties in turn exerted a profound influence on the formation of the basic values and national spirit of Chinese culture, becoming a cultural landscape that transcends the times, shaping the personality pursuits of generations of Chinese people, and becoming the national character of the Chinese nation.
The Junzi in Chinese culture is always connected with the people, the family, the state, and the world. In Chinese cultural tradition, the Junzi’s self-perfection, sincerity of thought, and self-cultivation are only a kind of theoretical preparation; the Junzi must ultimately shoulder the responsibilities of society and the state, governing the state and bringing peace to the world. In daily life, the Junzi is polite and helpful; in times of crisis, for the sake of ideals and beliefs, they can "sacrifice their lives to achieve benevolence," "give up their lives for righteousness," and meet danger with courage.
Constant Self-Perfection: Ancient Spirit, New Appearance
In 1914, Liang Qichao gave a lecture at Tsinghua University on the theme of the "Junzi." At the beginning of the lecture, Liang stated: "The meaning of the two characters Jun Zi is very broad. It is quite difficult to find a precise explanation for them. The term 'gentleman' used by the English covers many meanings and roughly coincides with the meaning of our country's Junzi." Whether this comparison between the Western "gentleman" and the Junzi of our cultural tradition is appropriate can be debated, but Liang keenly pointed out that in the face of a new era and a new world, one should not be confined by the status of ruler and minister under a monarchy or stubbornly cling to the Confucian expression of the Junzi. Instead, one should "absorb new civilization, improve our society, and promote our politics," becoming a Junzi within the modern order and realistic morality.
The Junzi of old was primarily advocated by Confucians represented by Confucius and Mencius. Although they possessed various excellent qualities such as benevolence, propriety, sincerity, and a love for learning, representing the advanced culture of that time, it was after all a cultural phenomenon of ancient society and possessed its own temporal limitations. So, what is a Junzi of the New Era like? In fact, the spirit of the Junzi has not ceased to blow; contemporary Junzi are still active in every corner of society. Mr. Yuan Longping, the rice expert, lived simply in his seventies yet still personally went to the experimental fields and worked on the front lines of scientific research, ensuring our country’s food security and solving the millennium-old problem of hunger; he truly deserves the name of Junzi. The border guards who willingly endure hardship, silently guarding the mountains and rivers, likewise cannot but be called Junzi. Through them, we can glimpse the face of the contemporary Junzi: on the basis of inheriting the Junzi personality advocated by cultural tradition, they take the heart of benevolence as their foundation, and with a grand vision, grand ambition, and grand realm, they transcend the old Confucian connotations of the Junzi concept. They advance with the times, develop features characteristic of the era, and their words, deeds, and character conform to contemporary values. Simultaneously, today's Junzi culture truly faces the broader masses of the people, allowing every person with a noble, upright, and sincere character the equal opportunity to become a Junzi, making the Chinese nation a true "Land of Gentlemen" (Junzi Guo).
To promote the spirit of the Junzi and drive the creative transformation and innovative development of excellent traditional Chinese culture, we should forge a lifestyle and value pursuit that can interface with historical tradition and match the Chinese path. This includes noble character, human ethical affection, awareness of rights, concepts of the rule of law, and cultivation of etiquette. Cultivating a modern Junzi personality is the core of shaping an Oriental ethical lifestyle and is the starting point for the inheritance and development of excellent traditional Chinese culture within the life of the individual.