Liu Shulin: A New Display of the Charm of Chinese Civilization in the New Era and a New Realm of Research on the "Two Combinations"
In the report to the 20th CPC National Congress, Xi Jinping pointed out: "The Chinese Communists have come to realize deeply that only by integrating the basic tenets of Marxism with China's specific realities and with its fine traditional culture, and only by persisting in the application of dialectical materialism and historical materialism, can we correctly answer the major questions posed by the times and practice, and consistently maintain the vigorous vitality of Marxism." The report of the 20th National Congress presented us with a new mission for the Sinicization of Marxism in the New Era: the "Two Integrations." Previously, at the ceremony marking the centenary of the founding of the Communist Party of China, Xi Jinping proposed the epochal proposition of the "Two Integrations." Simultaneously, the Resolution of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China on the Major Achievements and Historical Experience of the Party over the Past Century emphasized: "Fine traditional Chinese culture is a prominent advantage of the Chinese nation and the foundation upon which we stand firm amidst the global cultural ferment; it must be inherited and promoted in combination with new temporal conditions." Therefore, deeply recognizing the new charm displayed by Chinese civilization in the New Era, and summarizing the historical experience and laws of integrating the basic tenets of Marxism with China’s specific realities and fine traditional culture, holds extremely important theoretical and practical significance for advancing the Sinicization and modernization of Marxism.
I. The New Charm Displayed by Chinese Civilization in the New Era
Entering the New Era, the new charm displayed by Chinese civilization is mainly manifested in the following three aspects.
First, with the development of archaeological undertakings and historical research in New China, the historical spatio-temporality of Chinese civilization has gained new expansion, and "five thousand years of history" has become authenticated history [1].
During the May Fourth Movement [2], Li Dazhao, one of the founders of the Communist Party of China, opened a new era of Chinese Marxist historical research. Over the 70-plus years of New China, historical research and new archaeological progress have not only broken through the "theory of the Western origin of Chinese culture," but have also formed a consensus on the "pluralistic origins, Central Plains core, and integrated structure" of Chinese cultural forms. In particular, the three archaeological excavations at Yinxiu [3] in the 20th century yielded 150,000 pieces of oracle bones, a large number of jade and bronze wares, and more than 4,000 individual Chinese characters conforming to the "six-principle structure" [4]. This reappeared the history of China from 3,300 years ago, confirmed the contents of Sima Qian’s Records of the Grand Historian: Annals of Yin, and also verified that the nature of the Shang dynasty’s social formation was a slave society.
Since the new period, the "Xia-Shang-Zhou Chronology Project" [5] has concentrated forces from various parties to tackle key problems. "A general consensus has been reached on the chronology of the early period of Chinese civilization: the date of the Xia is 2070 BCE; this is a conclusion reached on the basis of scientific research."
Archaeological discoveries and historical research continue to make new progress. In 2002, Li Xueqin of Tsinghua University discovered the inscription on the Bin Gong Xu [6] at the Poly Art Museum in Beijing, proving that the literature in the Preface to the Book of Documents has a basis in historical fact. At the site of Xinzhai in Xinmi and surrounding ruins—the legendary location of the "Youxiong State" of the Yellow Empire recorded in historical documents—findings also coincide with relevant records of the Yellow Emperor era in historical chronologies.
The spatio-temporality of Chinese civilization is constantly expanding, and its charm awaits further promotion. This developmental thread is also reflected in the speeches of successive Party and state leaders. In October 1938, at the Sixth Plenary Session of the Sixth Central Committee of the Party, Mao Zedong's formulation regarding Chinese history was: "From Confucius to Sun Yat-sen, we should summarize and inherit this precious legacy." With the excavation of the Yin Ruins in Anyang, Henan, and the discovery of a large number of oracle bone inscriptions, Mao Zedong’s formulation of Chinese history saw new progress when he presided over a meeting of the Political Bureau of the Central Committee on May 25, 1973: "The history from the turtle shells [oracle bones] to the Communist Party should be summarized." On May 27, 2022, when speaking about Chinese history at a group study session of the Political Bureau, Xi Jinping emphasized: "Through the continuous efforts of several generations of scholars, research results from major projects such as the Project to Trace the Origins of Chinese Civilization have provided evidence for our country's million-year history of humanity, ten-thousand-year history of culture, and more than five-thousand-year history of civilization." These words not only record the rapid pace of progress in the study of Chinese civilization over the past century but also clearly prove that the historical spatio-temporality of Chinese civilization is growing larger and its content richer.
Second, fine traditional Chinese culture demonstrates prominent advantages in development, and its five-thousand-year "uninterrupted" continuity is honored as unique among ancient world civilizations.
Chinese civilization is the only civilization among the ancient civilizations of the world that has survived and continued without interruption, possessing the prominent characteristic of developmental continuity. "Besides China, the world's earliest and independent ancient civilizations included ancient Egypt, ancient Mesopotamia, and ancient India; however, these civilizations, including those of Greece and Rome, were later interrupted. Only Chinese civilization has stretched on continuously, without interruption for 5,000 years; this is unique in the whole world. Therefore, for the development of all human history, the origin of Chinese civilization holds special significance."
In the "General Introduction" volume of the 2015 edition of the monumental General History of China, edited by the historian Bai Shouyi, it is noted: "Compared with other ancient civilizations, the continuity of ancient Chinese civilization is very striking. Chinese civilization arose in the Chalcolithic [Stone-Bronze] and Bronze Ages. After the continuous development of the three dynasties of Xia, Shang, and Zhou, it entered the Iron Age during the Spring and Autumn period... After the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods, it continued to develop toward the higher stage of the Qin and Han periods."
The reason Chinese civilization has such deep roots in human history and embodies a rare continuity is that it started early and developed rapidly during the stage of feudal civilization; its superstructure and economic base integrated well, forming a complete set of harmoniously functioning institutions. The operational inertia of this system created continuity over a long era and produced a brilliant ancient civilization and culture. A relatively systematic institutional framework formed a relatively complete and solid social shell, making it better able to withstand the shocks caused by internal and external conflicts. Although this situation was not conducive to moving toward a higher social formation, its developmental period was more stable and long-lasting than other types of institutional systems, exercising its own advantages in a certain sense. Xi Jinping pointed out: "China long occupied a leading position in the history of human development. Since ancient times, it gradually formed a complete set of national institutions and governance systems, including the court system, the prefecture and county system, the land system, the taxation system, the imperial examination system, the supervisory system, and the military system, which were studied and imitated by neighboring countries and nations." These systems are clearly important components of the brilliant Chinese civilization. Take the imperial examination system, for example: even until the late Qing dynasty, Britain—an advanced Western industrial nation—remained mindful that its modern "civil service system" was the result of inspiration and guidance from China’s imperial examination system.
The cohesive force pursuing unity fostered by Chinese civilization is also rare in the world. The birthplaces of civilization across the land of China, bright as a sky full of stars [7], did not fall apart or go their separate ways in history; rather, they possessed an eternal drive to pursue integral fusion, exerting a positive influence on all surrounding ethnic groups. The British historian Arnold Toynbee believed that, for thousands of years, the Chinese have succeeded more than any other people in the world in uniting hundreds of millions of people politically and culturally. They demonstrated this talent for political and cultural unification, possessing an unparalleled record of success.
Third, the strong vitality of Chinese civilization comes from the "endogenous power" of interaction, movement, and fusion between the center and the periphery of its civilizational structure.
Regarding the formation of Chinese civilization, the historian Chen Yuan once proposed a view of civilizational history characterized by "polycentric construction" and "preserving the core while being inclusive." In fact, this is not only the state of cultural exchange between China and the outside world but also the basic logic of the formation and development of Chinese civilization itself. In the process of its generation and development, through the occurrence of many origins, Chinese civilization gradually formed a relationship of interaction, movement, and fusion between the central civilization and the various peripheral ethnic groups. During this process, an "endogenous power" or "tension" between the carriers of interaction was generated. This endogenous power and tension became the vital force for Chinese civilization's metabolism and self-strengthening.
According to historical records, this interaction between the central regions of civilization and its periphery began as early as the time of Shun. At that time, the migration of nations or ethnic groups took on the character of official administrative planning: "He banished Gonggong to Youzhou, exiled Huandou to Mount Chong, drove the Sanmiao to Sanwei, and executed Gun at Mount Yu" (Book of Documents: Canon of Shun). Sima Qian’s Records of the Grand Historian also recorded the ancestral origins of China’s Xiongnu [8] migrations: "The Xiongnu, their ancestor was a descendant of the House of Xia, named Chunwei... they dwelt among the northern barbarians, moving about in search of water and pasture" (Records of the Grand Historian: Treatise on the Xiongnu). It can be seen that the ancestors of the Xiongnu were also descendants of Yu the Great of the Xia who migrated to the north.
This interaction and fusion between the center and periphery and among various ethnic groups was also assisted by administrative power management. According to the Book of Documents: Tribute of Yu, Yu the Great divided the areas extending outward from the capital every 500 li into administrative zones, each called a fu (service/domain). Extending outward from the capital as the center, they were divided into: Dianfu (Royal Domain), Houfu (Nobles' Domain), Suifu (Pacified Domain), Yaofu (Compulsory Service Domain), and Huangfu (Wild Domain)—the "Five Domains" in total. The people of each "domain" had different quantities and methods for fulfilling obligations such as taxes and corvée labor. This also formed a multi-layered interaction and exchange between the center and the periphery. Later, the geographical concept of the "Five Domains" (wufu) evolved into a standard for kinship relations and family seniority; those "within the five domains" were considered direct kin, while those "outside the five domains" could forgo direct family rituals. In some parts of rural Shandong province, even today, families observe the "Five Domains" of seniority as the boundary for performing rituals during the Spring Festival and major social activities.
This interaction and fusion between center and periphery also took place among ethnic groups of different origins. The comprehensive report of the Project to Trace the Origins of Chinese Civilization pointed out: "As early as the Neolithic period, a pattern of 'diversity in unity' had formed on this land of China, with the Central Plains as the core and including different types of class cultures... From the beginning of Chinese civilization, frequent exchange, collision, and fusion occurred between economic groups of different regions, different cultural traditions, and different economic modes... Unity became the mainstream of the Chinese nation."
Geopolitics, natural disasters, and Yellow River floods were also factors prompting the interaction and fusion between the center and periphery. Due to the advantages or disadvantages of geography and the constant strikes of natural disasters or Yellow River floods, the capitals of various dynasties shifted continuously; the location of the center of civilization itself was unstable and constantly transferring. Regarding the Xia, Shang, and Zhou periods: the Xia capital moved ten times, generally along both banks of the Yellow River from west to east; the Yin-Shang capital moved sixteen times, generally from the Zhi River in Hebei to Yan, Ji, and the Yi River, passing through Shangqiu and Zou-Lu before gradually moving south and stopping at the Yin Ruins—they were known as the people of Yan, Bo, and the Shanrong [Mountain Barbarians]; the Zhou capital moved more than ten times, from Longyou to the foot of Mount Qi, to Feng and Hao, then after conquering the Chong, they established Luoyi, occupied the old dwellings of the Xia, moved along the Jing and Wei rivers to the Yellow River, then advanced east, and conducted northern and southern expeditions to form a unification—they were known as the people of the Northwest Rong and Di.
The warfare of the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods and the unification of the Qin dynasty; the uprisings of Chen Sheng and Wu Guang; the Chu-Han Contention between Liu Bang and Xiang Yu; the enlightened policies of Emperor Wu of Han in fusing various ethnic groups; the great fusion during the Three Kingdoms and Jin periods; the migration of the Xianbei people's Northern Wei capital from Datong to Luoyang and their subsequent Sinicization... these interactions and migrations led to a grand fusion and confluence of Chinese culture across all directions. This not only made the Han people a "hybrid" great nation but also ensured that the various ethnic groups were inextricably intertwined ("I am in you and you are in me"), and their living habits formed a grand confluence. From ancient times to the present, the concept and historical reality of the Chinese nation as "one family under heaven" was formed in this way.
The "Introduction" volume of the General History of China edited by Bai Shouyi summarizes three major migrations in the history of Chinese civilization: First, during the Warring States, Qin, and Han periods, the interaction and contest between the central regions and the northern Xiongnu; the Southern Xiongnu submitted to the Han, while the Northern Xiongnu were defeated and fled west beyond the Pamir Mountains (Congling), triggering the 4th-century migration of Germanic tribes in Europe and the fall of the Western Roman Empire. Second, in the late Northern and Southern Dynasties and the Sui and Tang periods, after repeated battles with the Sui and Tang, the Turkic Khaganate collapsed; many Turks submitted to the Tang, while many others went west, spreading across the Pamir Mountains and Central Asia. Third, at the beginning of the 13th century, amidst the confrontation between the Jin, Southern Song, and Western Xia, the Mongols conquered vast areas of Eurasia to become an unprecedentedly massive empire, exerting a huge influence on world history. These major migrations, interspersed with smaller migrations in every dynasty, constituted the opportunities for interaction and fusion among ethnic groups.
Emperor Taizong of Tang, Li Shimin, implemented enlightened ethnic policies, achieving the effect of grand national unity. He believed: "The barbarians (yidi) are also human; their feelings are no different from those in the Central Kingdom (zhongxia). A ruler should only worry if his virtue and kindness do not reach them; there is no need to be suspicious of different kinds. If virtue and kindness are applied broadly, the four barbarians can be made like one family; if there is too much suspicion, even one’s own flesh and blood cannot avoid becoming enemies." "Since ancient times, all have valued the Chinese and depreciated the barbarians; I alone love them as one, so their tribes all rely on me as they would their parents." During the reign of Emperor Taizong, great achievements were made in domestic ethnic policy and foreign policy, sustaining the "Reign of Zhenguan" [9].
In 1227, before his death, Genghis Khan of the Yuan Dynasty entrusted his young heirs to the Chancellor Yelü Chucai [10]. Assisting Genghis Khan’s successor, Ögedei Khan, Yelü Chucai followed the traditions of Central Plains civilization [11] to establish etiquette and systems, emphasize culture and education, restore the imperial examinations, and appoint Han officials in large numbers. He prohibited the barbaric custom of massacring cities after victory; in Kaifeng alone, 1.47 million people were saved from disaster, a practice that subsequently became the norm. Through the principle of "using the sophisticated to transform the primitive" [12], civil governance was established. Yelü Chucai served as Chancellor for thirty years; when he passed away, the common people mourned him as if they had lost their own parents [13]. This serves as another example of ethnic interaction and integration.
The Qing Dynasty developed rapidly after entering the Shanhai Pass. It not only expanded and consolidated the northwestern territories but also underwent gradual Sinicization to such an extent that, by the time of the 1911 Revolution, once the queues [14] were cut off, it became difficult to find any remaining markers of the original Manchu social life. Although the late Qing period was a time when modern Chinese civilization verged on crisis, seen from another perspective, the existence of the Qing Dynasty—compared to the rapid decline of the contemporary Ottoman Empire and the Mughal Empire in India—"basically maintained the territorial scope of the motherland. The existence of China as a unified major Eastern power created a massive obstacle to the aggression and expansion of Western colonizers." "Having experienced the frenzy of global imperialist partition of colonies in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the ability of China, an ancient power, to survive was a setback for imperialist aggression and an encouragement for the struggle of the world's oppressed nations." Of course, during this period, it was primarily the masses who manifested the spirit of Chinese civilization in resisting aggression and imperialism. As Mao Zedong said, "The heroic struggle of the Chinese people, unyielding and redoubled over the past century, has made it impossible for imperialism to destroy China to this day, and it will never be able to destroy China."
Historical facts prove that the integration of the Chinese nation is of relatively high quality. Lao She [15] was a member of the Manchu Plain Red Banner in Beijing. The renowned historians Bai Shouyi and Sha Jiansun were Hui. The Ningxia Nationalities Museum displays the achievements of famous Hui scholars, and Professors Bai and Sha are among them. Without such specific introductions, the specific ethnic identities of these three professors would hardly be known to the general public.
Zhang Haipeng pointed out: "In our development process, the 'plural' gradually moved toward the 'integral.' The cultures of various regions competed, collided, and fused, ultimately forming Chinese civilization." Clearly, Zhang also identifies the fact that the competition, collision, and fusion of regional cultures generated "endogenous momentum."
Xi Jinping summarized the law of "endogenous momentum" produced by this mode of interaction: "Since ancient times, the people of the Central Plains and the frontier regions have moved back and forth in frequent interaction. Particularly since the Qin Dynasty, there has been both Han settlement in the frontiers and the inward migration of frontier peoples. Through several great ethnic fusions, the various ethnic groups have become inseparable from one another [16], jointly developing the land beneath our feet." "As early as the Pre-Qin period, our country gradually formed an integrative pattern with the Yan-Huang Huaxia [17] as the cohesive core and the 'peoples of the five directions' sharing the world. ... No matter which ethnic group entered the Central Plains to rule, they took the unification of the world as their personal duty and regarded themselves as the orthodoxy of Chinese culture." "The reason why all ethnic groups are united and integrated, and why the 'plural' is gathered into the 'integral,' stems from the cultural inclusiveness, economic interdependence, and emotional closeness of all ethnic groups, as well as the endogenous momentum of the Chinese nation in pursuing unity and unification." This is a comprehensive and profound summation of the civilizational characteristics of the Chinese nation.
In the New Era, Chinese civilization has long since moved past its modern low point of "being covered in dust," surpassed the difficult period of the early days of the New China, and even moved beyond the "make-up period" of economic development. Amidst the long-term decline and constant outbreaks of turmoil in the contemporary imperialist world, it maintains a composed developmental advantage with an independent posture. The Resolution of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China on the Major Achievements and Historical Experience of the Party over the Past Century points out: "The continuous success of the Sinicization and modernization of Marxism has presented Marxism to the world with a brand-new image, causing a major shift in the historical evolution and contest between the two ideologies and social systems of socialism and capitalism worldwide in favor of socialism." Therefore, now is the golden age to promote and tap into the precious treasures and potential of fine traditional Chinese culture and to embody its contemporary value.
II. New Laws Governing the Display and Development of Chinese Civilization Emerging from Modern Low Points
Chinese civilization, which has led development throughout its several-thousand-year journey, has radiated brilliant splendor, enlightening the thinking of its own people and people around the world. However, in modern times, Chinese civilization underwent a period of being "covered in dust" and suffering humiliation. An accurate understanding of this journey from humiliation to struggle and rise in Chinese history involves not only basic views on the laws of modern historical development but also affects our identification with and confidence in the current prospects and future direction of Chinese civilization. It is of great significance to scientifically understand this period of tortuous development in modern Chinese history.
First, correctly understanding the historical process of Chinese civilization from its modern 'dust-covering' to its struggle and rise.
Within the history of the international communist movement and the history of socialism, a major unavoidable research topic has emerged over the past 70-plus years: the victory of the socialist revolution occurring first in countries that were relatively backward economically and culturally. From the perspective of this topic, the modern history of Chinese civilization—a period of being "covered in dust" and lacking vigor—can be well explained through the broad historical rhythm of the development of Chinese civilization.
To recognize the world-historical status of Chinese civilization, one must first correctly understand the historical reasons for its "dust-covering" in modern times. Why did a world civilization that had led development for so long fall step-by-step into the abyss of a semi-colonial and semi-feudal society for more than half a century after 1840? Why did the successive struggles and national salvation efforts of Chinese people with lofty ideals [18] fail during this period? This is the first question requiring a scientific answer. The second question is: why did the destiny of the Chinese people and the Chinese nation undergo a fundamental change following the founding of the Communist Party of China in 1921, ushering in a new stage of glorious struggle that, from October 1, 1949, to the present, has become a history of moving toward the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation? Different answers to these two questions actually determine different understandings of the laws governing the development of Chinese civilization.
Regarding these two fundamental questions about the modern development of Chinese civilization, Xi Jinping has provided scientific answers: "To save the nation from peril, the Chinese people rose up in resistance, and people with lofty ideals traveled and cried out. The Taiping Heavenly Kingdom Movement, the Reform Movement of 1898, the Boxer Movement, and the Revolution of 1911 broke out one after another, and various national salvation plans were introduced, but all ended in failure. China urgently needed new ideas to lead the national salvation movement and a new organization to coalesce revolutionary forces."
The "dust-covering" of Chinese civilization and the failure of various struggles were mainly due to the following two reasons:
- The national salvation movement in China lacked the guidance of new ideas. Before the October Revolution in Soviet Russia, in the face of the capitalist world system and colonialist aggression, Chinese civilization lacked a scientific ideological system to guide the masses in seeing through the origins and development of aggressive forces. The then-dominant feudal ideology was already decadent and was no match for Western capitalist ideology.
- In the face of aggression by Western powers, the Chinese nation lacked a core organization to consolidate all revolutionary forces for an anti-aggression struggle. Whether it was the Qing government or local warlords, not only were they unable to lead resistance against aggression, but they were also prone to colluding with colonialism to oppress the people. The Qing government was unable to organize any effective resistance against the invaders, and the people of the whole country were in a state of "loose sand" [19] before the aggressors.
Following the answer to the first question, the answer to the second question emerges. The October Revolution, the May Fourth Movement, the spread of Marxism-Leninism in China, the founding of the CPC, and the pioneering work of the Sinicization of Marxism compensated for the historical defects of Chinese civilization, activated its essential elements, and guided the Chinese revolution from victory to victory. The discovery of these two defects led to their remedy. Once these two historical gaps were filled, Chinese history underwent a great turning point. This transition was also manifested in two aspects:
- Under the guidance of Marxism-Leninism, the Chinese nation not only understood the origins and development of capitalism and colonialism but also understood that the demise of colonialism is inevitable and the victory of the people is certain, thereby gaining the confidence necessary for victory. The emergence of innovative results from the Sinicization of Marxism provided the Chinese people with a powerful ideological weapon to destroy the old world and strive for a new one. Sinicized Marxism guides the Chinese people from victory to victory.
- The founding, development, and growth of the CPC combined Marxism with China’s concrete realities and fine traditional Chinese culture, becoming the "backbone" [20] of the Chinese people in their struggle. Xi Jinping pointedly stated: "For a hundred years, the CPC has united and led the Chinese people in writing the most magnificent epic in the thousands of years of the history of the Chinese nation, with the undaunted spirit of 'our minds grow stronger for the martyrs' sacrifice, daring to make the sun and moon shine in new skies.' The great path opened, the great cause created, and the great achievements realized in these hundred years will surely be recorded in the annals of the development of the Chinese nation and the annals of the development of human civilization."
The answers of Chinese Communists to these two fundamental questions both look back at history and guide the future. "We must use history to reflect on reality and look into the distant future. From the Party’s century of struggle, we must see clearly why we were successful in the past and understand how we can continue to be successful in the future, so that on the new journey, we can more firmly and consciously remember our original aspiration and founding mission and create a better future." Observing modern Chinese history requires not only seeing the aspects of it once covered in dust and humiliation but, more importantly, seeing its struggle, victory, and glory. Only then can we more clearly recognize that the struggle between the modern Chinese people and imperialism was a war against aggression and a just war; only the CPC leading the people could save China, and only under the guidance of the innovative results of the Sinicization and modernization of Marxism could China be saved. This is the secret of how the Chinese nation traversed modern humiliation and dust, emerged from its low point, and moved toward rising.
Second, adhering to the principle of "creative transformation and innovative development" of fine traditional Chinese culture for present use, while rejecting archaism and historical nihilism.
In recent decades, "cultural archaism" [21] appeared for a time in the field of traditional culture. Its nature is a reaction against the century of cultural revolution and, moreover, a form of formalism detached from the masses, which ultimately amounts to nothing more than the self-entertainment of archaists. Cultural archaists fail to see the world trends and social progress, fail to see the great trends of historical development, and vainly attempt to replace the now-dominant socialist ideology with the feudal culture of the old society. Cultural archaists fail to see the decadent, hierarchical, and privileged aspects of traditional culture, forgetting that the decadent parts of traditional culture once brought China to the brink of national extinction. Cultural archaists also superficially wave the banner of "promoting traditional culture," but what they want to "promote" is not the fine traditional culture that possesses historical progressive significance, but rather an attempt to replace the new socialist culture under the guidance of Marxism with the decadent parts of traditional culture. This is evidenced by the various attempts in recent decades to restore Confucianism as a religion, which have recurred from time to time and triggered resentment and criticism from the broad masses of the people.
In the ideological and cultural spheres, due to the influence of domestic and international factors, trends of historical nihilism, national nihilism, and cultural nihilism have also appeared in recent decades. These trends superficially and blindly negate fine traditional Chinese culture and Chinese civilization, but in reality, they negate the new socialist culture from an extreme perspective. In modern social life, they do not advocate for the negation of the decadent ideas of feudalism and capitalism; rather, they "point at the mulberry to revile the locust" [22], targeting historical ancestors to achieve the goal of negating actual socialist society. Some even directly label the history of the revolution led by the CPC, the deepest social transformations, and the scientific thoughts of great leaders as "a complete pitch-black mess" or a "Leftist" history and negate them. In recent years, the trend of historical nihilism advocated by some has gone so far as to oppose the Party's leadership, oppose Marxism-Leninism, disparage revolutionary leaders, and vilify people's heroes and model workers of the new society, even slandering Marxism as the "greatest historical nihilism." It is inevitable that these viewpoints of the historical nihilist trend have triggered general resentment and criticism among the masses.
Chinese civilization nurtures many cultural connotations of enduring value. In the New Era, it is the new mission of this generation of philosophy and social science scholars to integrate the basic tenets of Marxism with the excellent cultural achievements of Chinese civilization. This mission can only be successfully completed upon the premise of excluding archaism and historical nihilism. Only then can we tap into and utilize the wealth of national culture accumulated throughout a history "from tortoise shells to the present" to serve the Great Rejuvenation of the Chinese Nation. Xi Jinping emphasized: "We must persist in making the past serve the present and drawing lessons from the past, maintaining a discerning treatment and a critical inheritance, and we must not favor the ancient over the modern or use the past to negate the present. We must strive to realize the creative transformation and innovative development of traditional culture, making it integrate and communicate with contemporary culture, so as to jointly serve the epochal task of 'cultivating the people through culture' (以文化人)." Excavating and developing the excellent achievements of Chinese civilization with such a scientific attitude will allow us to "cultivate the people through culture," advance the cause of Great Rejuvenation, and ensure that the Sinicization and modernization of Marxism continue to advance along the correct path.
Third, only Marxism-Leninism can activate the factors of Chinese civilization and guide the direction of contemporary social development.
Within the intellectual treasure house of Chinese civilization, there is an excellent cultural tradition of materialism originating with Xun Kuang [23], as well as a dialectical tradition represented by Laozi and Zhuangzi. However, because Confucianism served as the "orthodox ideology" and fettered the minds of the people for a long period, positive elements such as naive materialism and dialectics were unable to guide or organize the Chinese people to find a way forward for social development. Once the nation fell into the quagmire of semi-feudalism and semi-colonialism, these elements proved powerless.
Before the arrival of the Marxist materialist conception of history, even advanced figures in the modern era [24] continued to revise and re-map the "Practice of the Great Way" (大道之行) of Confucius or the "small state with few people" (小国寡民) primitive communism of Laozi. The reason the ideal societies of our ancestors were habitually sought by looking back at past history was precisely because they lacked the intellectual weapons to explore forward. Ever since the "salvos of the October Revolution brought Marxism-Leninism to China," the Chinese people grasped the worldview and methodology of historical materialism. For the first time, they possessed the ability to predict social development and grasp the grand trends of history, giving rise to the ideals and convictions of scientific socialism and communism. After the Communists led the people to master Marxist truth—and particularly after mastering the principles of the Sinicization of Marxism—Chinese civilization gradually escaped its state of being covered in dust and subjected to humiliation, turning instead toward a victorious process of heroic struggle. Marxism-Leninism activated the vitality of Chinese civilization’s self-strengthening spirit. Guided by the innovative fruits of the Sinicization of Marxism, and through more than 70 years of extraordinary struggle in New China, Chinese civilization in the New Era has, in fact, once again reached a starting point of leading development.
To correctly understand this historical positioning, we must resolve relevant ideological and theoretical issues.
First, we must recognize the historical necessity of the emergence of contemporary socialist countries on the basis of relatively backward economies and cultures. In the Communist Manifesto and the first volume of Capital, Marx and Engels proposed and maintained the thesis of the "Two Inevitabilities" [25] based on thorough and detailed scientific research. The thesis of the "Two Never-attainables" [26] they proposed in 1859 is completely consistent with the "Two Inevitabilities"; both are elaborations on the principle that "man's social existence determines his consciousness." The "Two Never-attainables" does not mean that people must wait until the contradiction between capitalist productive forces and relations of production develops to its ultimate extreme before the conditions for revolution exist. This is because the unevenness of capitalist development is absolute. If one were to wait for the "ultimate extreme" state to arrive, it would effectively amount to canceling the historical initiative of the people and canceling the revolution. Based on his research into the capitalist world system, the weak links in the imperialist chain, and how war triggers revolution, Lenin proposed the theory that the socialist revolution could first succeed in one country. Mao Zedong Thought, as an innovative fruit of the Sinicization of Marxism, further pointed the way for the victorious transition from China's New Democratic Revolution to the Socialist Revolution. By adopting the path of "encircling the cities from the rural areas" for the violent revolution, it opened a victorious path with New Era characteristics for the liberation of people in colonial and semi-colonial countries.
Second, we must summarize the general and specific laws of the development of Chinese civilization with a broader vision and more substantial historical facts. It is not difficult to see that in the development of world history along the five social formations [27], universal basic laws exist: there is no precedent for the overall sequence of the five social formations being bypassed or reversed. Yet, at the same time, this reflects the particularity of contradiction: the countries or regions that are the first to enter a new social formation are often those that were relatively backward in the economy and culture of the original social formation. Conversely, countries or regions where the original social formation and system were more developed or leading often fall behind in the process of entering the new social formation due to their own leading inertia and the rigidity of their social system's shell. Those that entered the feudal social formation earlier were mostly countries and regions where slavery was relatively backward; those that entered the capitalist social formation earlier were mostly countries and regions where the feudal stage was relatively backward; similarly, those that entered the socialist social formation earlier were also mostly countries and regions where the capitalist stage was relatively backward. In this regard, no exceptions have yet been found. This interesting phenomenon has attracted the attention of more and more scholars of history and political science. On this basis, it is expected that a more detailed map of the development of social formations can be drawn, supporting and enriching the principles and laws of historical materialism with more detailed historical facts.
Under the guidance of Marxist historical materialism, many older-generation historians discovered this historical development phenomenon and reflected on its laws. Lei Haizong, an expert in ancient world history, long ago noted that China did not reach a high degree of development during the stage of the slave system, and its duration was relatively short. However, it was precisely because the slave system was not long-lasting or highly developed that we entered feudal society earlier and faster, leading the way for a long period. "Within the feudal category, China's development was the highest, its economy the wealthiest, and its politics the most unified... The people also had higher organizational capacity and combativeness." "In the entire world history before capitalism, patriotism reached its highest development in China." "China is the only exception that had already developed into a nation during the feudal society stage." "In other parts of the world, development within the feudal category was generally lower, so no nations emerged; they generally became nations during the process of entering capitalist society. The so-called 'long-term stagnation of Chinese society' was not actually stagnation, but rather long-term and high-level development within the feudal framework." This analysis is rich in original theoretical innovation. The "mosts" he mentions regarding the world at that time demonstrate the leading brilliance of Chinese civilization during the feudal stage. Of course, from another perspective, China's backwardness during the capitalist social formation stage became inevitable. This was necessitated by the characteristics of basic social contradictions and did not stem from the personal factors of certain ruling-class figures or specific social policies.
As is well known, the countries and regions that first entered the capitalist social formation were those in Western Europe and North America where feudalism was underdeveloped. In the modern era, Chinese civilization long faced the dominance of capitalism and imperialism. The backwardness of this stage brought extremely complex national psychology and political choice intentions to Chinese civilization. This was also a negative phenomenon produced by the conditions of the times. In 1929, Hu Shih’s argument in the China Christian Year Book that Chinese civilization was "inferior to others in everything" and his advocacy for "wholesale Westernization" [28] were proposed against this backdrop. However, the continuity of development of Chinese civilization, with its five-thousand-year history and its ability to take turns leading world civilization, has frequently stunned the proponents of Western centrism.
Chinese civilization was relatively backward during the stage of capitalist development, and it was difficult for it to become a typical capitalist state. However, since Marxism-Leninism activated the vital factors of Chinese civilization, in an era where the socialist social system appeared in human history, Chinese civilization once again marched at the forefront of world historical development. This is the law by which a new round of previously backward countries moves to the forefront of social development and leads progress. In the New Era, Chinese civilization faces the historical mission of leading development once again. Facing the goals for 2035 and 2049, the Chinese people are full of confidence and determined to succeed.
Some insightful people in the world long ago recognized the historical status and bright future prospects of Chinese civilization. The British historian Arnold J. Toynbee, mentioned earlier, is a representative among them. Toynbee spent decades studying the history of the rise and fall of human civilizations. In the early 1970s, he transcended the traditional research framework he had used for decades and reached an earth-shattering conclusion: "It is China that is destined to bring political unity and peace not just to half the world, but to the entire world." "Such unity is precisely the absolute requirement of today's world."
In the concluding part of the first volume of Capital, Marx clearly pointed out: "The monopoly of capital becomes a fetter upon the mode of production, which has sprung up and flourished along with, and under it. Centralization of the means of production and socialization of labor at last reach a point where they become incompatible with their capitalist integument. This integument is burst asunder. The knell of capitalist private property sounds." In an era where the basic contradictions of the entire world capitalist system tend toward the point of "bursting asunder," which country will be the first to detonate?
Initially, Marx and Engels predicted it would be "detonated" by several developed capitalist countries together, or that wherever productive forces were most developed, that was where it might first "detonate"—particularly in Britain, the earliest mature capitalist country. However, Marx’s use of the "integument" (shell) to describe the sturdiness of a social system, combined with the unevenness of capitalist development, led Lenin to the conclusion that the socialist revolution would first "detonate" at the weak link of capitalism. Wherever the "shell" was weak and simultaneously possessed sharp basic contradictions of capitalism, there existed the possibility for revolution to occur first and achieve victory. The emergence of the Soviet Union under the leadership of Lenin and Stalin triggered armed intervention by more than a dozen imperialist countries. During World War II, the strength of the Soviet Red Army in eliminating fascism again triggered long-term fear and confrontation from the US ruling class toward the Soviet Union.
At the end of the 20th century, although the Soviet Union unfortunately disintegrated, the powerful Russia led by Putin remains a hurdle that US hegemonism finds difficult to overcome. The success of the revolution in China—the great Eastern power with five thousand years of civilization—once triggered unexpected panic in the United States. Truman's anti-communism, the China policy of supporting Chiang Kai-shek against the Communists, the Korean War, the Vietnam War, the blockade policy, and the construction of a crescent-shaped encirclement all eventually vanished like mist with Nixon's initiative to visit China. The US ruling class may be unwilling to reflect on a common saying of the Chinese people: "If we had known then what we know now, why act as we did?" The tide of the world is surging; those who follow it will prosper, and those who resist it will perish. This is the law and grand trend of the development of world civilization. In the face of this grand trend, are there still people who believe blindly in hegemonism and unilateralism, and who wish to repeat the historical preference for harming others as well as themselves by launching wars of aggression?
III. The New Mission of Realizing the "Two Combinations" in the New Era
Through more than a century of struggle by the Chinese Communists, and particularly in the historical process where the Sinicization of Marxism realized its "three leaps," Chinese civilization has climbed mountains and crossed rivers, weathered the storms of the age, and demonstrated a developmental course and laws significantly different from other civilizations in the world. In the New Era, we have reached a new starting point for leading development. Xi Jinping emphasized: "We persist in combining the basic tenets of Marxism with China's specific realities and with China's excellent traditional culture, continuously promoting the Sinicization and modernization of Marxism, and advancing the creative transformation and innovative development of China's excellent traditional culture." Realizing the "Two Combinations" [29] of the Sinicization and modernization of Marxism is the new historical mission of Marxist research in our country. According to Xi Jinping’s relevant expositions, this new historical mission has the following three requirements.
First, inherit the glorious tradition of the Sinicization and modernization of Marxism, and promote the adaptation of China's excellent traditional culture to socialist society through the "Two Combinations."
Since the early 1930s, when Mao Zedong creatively achieved the first historic leap in the Sinicization of Marxism, the Sinicization of Marxism has achieved two new leaps during the new period of reform, opening up, and socialist modernization, and in the New Era of socialism with Chinese characteristics. In the New Era, our Party has explicitly identified the Sinicization of Marxism as a glorious tradition in terms of the Party’s guiding ideology. The Sinicization and modernization of Marxism involve the integration of Marxism with China’s specific realities, as well as the integration of Marxism with fine traditional Chinese culture. In every historical period led by our Party, the Sinicization and modernization of Marxism have guided us from victory to victory. Today, we must continue to inherit and carry forward this glorious tradition, more consciously fulfilling the new mission of the Sinicization and modernization of Marxism in the New Era.
Xi Jinping has emphasized: "We must persist in upholding the fundamentals and breaking new ground, promote the adaptation of fine traditional Chinese culture to socialist society, display the unique spiritual hallmarks of the Chinese nation, and better construct Chinese spirit, Chinese values, and Chinese strength." This involves two "linkages": first, the linkage between the reality of today's socialism with Chinese characteristics and the historical Sinicization and modernization of Marxism; second, the linkage between today’s reality and fine traditional Chinese culture. This is an endeavor to understand the cycles of change from antiquity to the present [30] and to open a new realm of the Sinicization and modernization of Marxism. Today, we must more deeply understand the source and flow of Chinese civilization to better guide the people, especially the youth, to look forward and move forward—to open a new chapter for the cause of socialism with Chinese characteristics and achieve new accomplishments in the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation with more substantial Chinese spirit, values, and strength.
Viewed historically, the reason our Party successfully solved a series of difficult problems in revolution and construction and achieved victory in the New Democratic Revolution [31], socialist revolution, and construction is precisely because it persisted in the Sinicization and modernization of Marxism, which includes the content of the "Two Combinations." This is not only our experience but our tradition. From the perspective of hostile forces at home and abroad, this is exactly what they have always focused on undermining. The trend of historical nihilism [32] advocated by Western hostile forces may take various forms, but their objectives share striking similarities or identities. The spearhead of their attacks and sabotage is aimed both at the fine traditional culture of Chinese history and, more importantly, at the nascent socialist system. Therefore, when we emphasize the combination of the basic principles of Marxism with China’s specific realities and with fine traditional Chinese culture today—sorting out and emphasizing the tradition of the "Two Combinations" in the Sinicization of Marxism—it is both the preservation and promotion of fine traditional Chinese culture and, even more so, the maintenance and defense of the actual carrier of scientific socialism in China. Our efforts to make fine traditional Chinese culture compatible with socialist society mean emphasizing the absorption of the gems of fine traditional Chinese culture under the guidance of Marxism; it means better achieving the combination of the basic principles of Marxism with fine traditional Chinese culture; and it means making fine traditional Chinese culture better serve the cause of scientific socialism.
Second, we must unswervingly uphold the guiding position of Marxism in the ideological sphere.
The theoretical foundation guiding our thinking is Marxism; this has been the unshakeable ideological foundation of the state since the founding of New China. The scientific worldview of Marxism is the weapon guiding our understanding of history and our creation of the future. Xi Jinping stressed: "Our Party has always viewed the history of the Chinese nation from the standpoint, viewpoint, and method of historical materialism, inheriting and promoting fine traditional Chinese culture." "We must persist in the fundamental guiding ideology of Marxism, inherit and promote revolutionary culture, develop advanced socialist culture, and seek 'source water' [33] from fine traditional Chinese culture."
Since the beginning of the modern era, China has lived within the environment of world history. With the advancement and fluctuations of globalization, the connections and interactions among countries have become increasingly close. Today, we face great changes unseen in a century, and the shifting domestic and international environments have formed a multicultural world and public opinion environment. Within this multicultural global environment, every country has its own dominant ideology and guiding thought. Exploiting the reforms and adjustments in socialist countries, Western hegemonic powers have taken the opportunity to export ideas such as "total Westernization," "liberal democracy and human rights," "constitutional democracy," and "the separation of powers and multi-party rotation of government" to developing countries, even engaging in subversive activities. A number of socialist countries collapsed and saw their parties destroyed because they accepted these inducements and subversions. China has summarized decades of positive and negative experiences and lessons from home and abroad, further emphasizing the comprehensive implementation of Xi Jinping Thought on Socialism with Chinese Characteristics for a New Era and unswervingly placing Marxism in the guiding position of ideology. This is a major historic achievement of the Party.
The guiding position of Marxism is reflected not only in the guidance of ideology but also in the scientific approach toward fine traditional Chinese culture. First, fine traditional Chinese culture must be researched with the ranks of Chinese Marxists as the dominant force, relying primarily on the Chinese people’s own research and interpretation. This is an expression of national cultural sovereignty. Meanwhile, research, absorption, and promotion must follow basic Marxist theory to take those components with strong "people-oriented" [34] qualities and discard those with the limitations of the exploiting classes. This must be combined with the needs of the socialist cause to achieve creative transformation and innovative development. Therefore, the combination of the basic principles of Marxism with fine traditional Chinese culture belongs to a process where Marxist guidance is manifested within the combination, achieving a new synthesis under the guidance of basic Marxist principles.
In terms of content, the "Two Combinations" under Marxist guidance also mean that this is not only the study of and combination with historical fine traditional culture, but also includes the inheritance and promotion of revolutionary culture, and the development and promotion of advanced socialist culture. At the same time, this serves as a systematic study and comprehensive summary of a socialist form of civilization, displaying a brand-new image of socialist civilization. Therefore, we must use Xi Jinping’s relevant expositions, especially the "macro-view of history" [35], to view history and reality. We must view the Party’s history according to the "theme and main line" and the "mainstream and essence" to achieve the organic integration of fine traditional Chinese culture, revolutionary culture, and advanced socialist culture.
In terms of achieving goals, the "Two Combinations" under Marxist guidance are not only about the selection and application of content but also about researching and forming the academic, disciplinary, and discourse systems of Chinese civilization, completing the study of the new form of Chinese civilization. This is a more profound and systematic research and development. Therefore, the ranks of Marxist theorists have a long way to go; the task is both glorious and arduous.
Third, we must give full play to the educational role of fine traditional Chinese culture.
The study of fine traditional Chinese culture differs from general academic research; it is a major research project concerning the cause of national rejuvenation. Global hegemonism will not resign itself to defeat; facing China's rise and development, they will inevitably create various interferences and obstacles to hinder and undermine China's progress toward national rejuvenation. This is a competition and contest of national hard power and soft power. In this contest, victory can only be secured by giving full play to the inherent potential and advantages of Chinese civilization. Xi Jinping emphasized: "We must fully utilize research results such as the Project to Trace the Origins of Chinese Civilization [36] to tell the story of ancient Chinese history more completely and accurately, and better play the role of history in educating people." "We must create a strong social atmosphere for inheriting Chinese civilization, widely publicize research results such as the Project to Trace the Origins of Chinese Civilization, and educate and guide the masses, especially teenagers, to better understand and identify with Chinese civilization, strengthening their ambition, backbone, and confidence [37] as Chinese people." Therefore, our research starting from the roots of Chinese civilization is meant to be based on the historical facts of 5,000 years of Chinese civilization, to seek truth, to reveal the truths objectively existing in practice, to master the laws of development of Chinese civilization, and to enhance the confidence of the people—especially the youth—in certain victory, so as to achieve the historical task of the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation.
The basic principles of Marxism achieve Sinicization in the process of combining with China's specific realities and China's fine traditional culture; Chinese civilization achieves modernization in the process of combining with the basic principles of Marxism; and the innovative results of the Sinicization and modernization of Marxism achieve "popularization" [38] through the processes of research, education, and publicity. This is the "trilogy" of the new historical mission for the entire body of Marxist theorists.
At the same time, we must properly handle the relationship between contemporary China and the world, letting the world understand China and comprehend Chinese civilization. Equality, mutual learning, dialogue, and inclusiveness represent the breadth of spirit with which China promotes a community with a shared future for humanity. Being "credible, lovable, and respectable" is the standard image of China; "constant self-improvement" and "social virtue and inclusiveness" [39] are the foundation and reality of Chinese civilization. A righteous cause enjoys abundant support; the friends of a just nation will surely be found across the world, and the historical task of the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation will certainly be achieved.