Kuresi Yibulayin: Marx's View of Spiritual Life and Its Practical Manifestations
From the moment human consciousness emerged, spiritual life has existed as a mode of living unique to human beings. Issues of spiritual life, such as thought, consciousness, and ideas, have long been important subjects of philosophical research. On the basis of criticizing the intuitiveness of old materialism and the abstractness of idealism, Marx founded historical materialism. However, the historical materialism Marx founded was not a "soulless materialism"; rather, it possessed a more profound understanding and awareness of the issues of spiritual life. Marx’s understanding of the essence of spiritual life, along with his critical reflections on and construction of it, has pointed the way forward for spiritual life in the New Era. General Secretary Xi Jinping proposed in the report to the 20th CPC National Congress that we must "meet the people’s growing spiritual and cultural needs" and "strengthen the spiritual power for achieving the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation." We must persist in using Marx's view of spiritual life as our guide, enrich the people's spiritual world, and create a new form of human spiritual civilization within the process of Chinese-path modernization.
I. The Essence of Spiritual Life from the Perspective of Marx’s Historical Materialism
Marx understood and recognized spiritual life from the perspective of historical materialism, allowing spiritual life to return from the abstract speculative cognition of traditional metaphysics to the realm of real material production, becoming a matter of socio-historical development and the actual liberation of humanity. From the perspective of historical materialism, spiritual life takes "material productive practice" as its foundation, the "socially real human" as its subject, "universal free social interaction" as its method, and "the well-rounded development of the individual" as its orientation.
(1) The foundation of spiritual life: Material productive practice
"All social life is essentially practical." [1] All factors that mystify theory can find their solution through practice and the understanding of practice. If divorced from real material productive practice, spiritual life will lose its footing and degenerate into a tree without roots or water without a source.
Material production determines the emergence and development of spiritual life. Marx pointed out: "The production of ideas, of conceptions, of consciousness, is at first directly interwoven with the material activity and the material intercourse of men, the language of real life." In the early stages of human society, imagination, thinking, and spiritual exchange still stemmed directly from material practice; the products of spiritual realms such as politics, law, and religion were all deeply rooted in material production. In the process of transforming the objective world, humanity continuously constructs and refines its own system of spiritual life.
The practice of material production determines the content and form of spiritual life. Marx noted: "The mode of production of material life conditions the general process of social, political, and spiritual life." Different socio-historical conditions shape different forms of spiritual life. The spiritual life of primitive society was dominated by totem worship and sacrificial rites; slave society exhibited spiritual antagonism between classes; the spiritual life of the people in feudal society was dependent on religious faith; and spiritual life in capitalist society manifests the characteristics of commodity fetishism and alienation. Spiritual life evolves alongside social formations, moving from limitation toward openness and from singularity toward plurality, continuously sublated [2] and transcended throughout this process.
(2) The subject of spiritual life: The socially real human
Marx believed that the subject of spiritual life is the "socially real human," who does not exist independently of society but is generated and developed in the process of cognizing and transforming the world.
Spiritual life is the unique mode of living of the socially real human. Marx pointed out: "Free, conscious activity is man's species-character." It is precisely this species-character [3] that enables humans to transcend themselves, objectify their life activity, and display "conscious life activity," thereby distinguishing themselves from animals. Animal life activity is governed by instinct, whereas humans construct a spiritual world through thoughts, concepts, will, and rational thinking, forming independent spiritual pursuits. Therefore, human spiritual life not only reflects the essential attributes of the human being but also carries a spiritual longing that transcends material needs.
Socially real humans are the subjects who produce and create spiritual life. Spiritual life is rooted in human social existence and social relations. As Marx said: "Men are the producers of their conceptions, ideas, etc.—real, active men." Therefore, spiritual life is, in essence, the product of the spiritual practical activities of socially real humans. At the same time, spiritual life is precisely the spiritual production, creation, and enjoyment carried out by humans based on their own developmental needs. Human needs progress from "survival → development → enjoyment," driving the continuous evolution of spiritual life and revealing a vast space for infinite development.
(3) The method of spiritual life: Universal free social interaction
Marx believed that ideas, conceptions, and consciousness were at first directly linked to the material intercourse of men, "arising from the need, the necessity, of intercourse with others." Therefore, universal free social interaction, based on material production, is an important path for promoting the enrichment and development of spiritual life.
Creating rich real-world relations through universal free social interaction promotes the enrichment of spiritual life. Marx pointed out: "The real intellectual wealth of the individual depends entirely on the richness of his real connections." In the practice of material production, humans construct social relations through universal social interaction, promoting the elevation of spiritual life. With the development of material production, social interaction becomes increasingly universal, and local or national isolation is replaced by global interconnectivity. Just as material production becomes globalized, so does spiritual production; the spiritual products of individual nations become common property. The local individual is thus transformed into a world-historical individual, and the spiritual life of the person is enriched and developed accordingly.
Forming a true social community through universal free social interaction promotes the development of spiritual life. Marx believed: "Only in community [with others has each] individual the means of cultivating his gifts in all directions; only in the community, therefore, is personal freedom possible." However, the "illusory community" shaped by the logic of capital alienates the worker into a laboring machine, where the spirit is suppressed and freedom is stripped away. To this end, Marx advocated for transcending regional and national limitations through universal free social interaction to connect real individuals into a "true community." Within the community, individuals escape the shackles of the division of labor, autonomously choosing their mode of labor and scope of social interaction, achieving free and well-rounded development. Spiritual life is thus enriched and elevated.
(4) The orientation of spiritual life: The well-rounded development of the individual
Marx believed that the degree of richness in spiritual life is related to the free and well-rounded development of the individual. He pointed out that the well-rounded development of the individual means "man appropriates his comprehensive essence in a comprehensive manner." Therefore, the richness of spiritual life is an inevitable requirement for the free and well-rounded development of the individual.
The free and well-rounded development of the individual is the source of power for the development of spiritual life. Marx noted: "It is the vocation, the destiny, the task of every person to develop themselves in a well-rounded way in all their capacities." Spiritual life is an important aspect of the free and well-rounded development of the individual. However, the division of labor in capitalist society severs material and spiritual activities, and capital obscures spiritual life, causing humans to fall into one-sided development. In reality, as natural beings, humans possess rich latent spiritual powers. The active role of spiritual life stimulates the subject's initiative to satisfy spiritual needs, driving them to break through one-sided development and move toward free and well-rounded development.
Spiritual life takes the free and well-rounded development of the individual as its final goal. Marx believed that only a communist society that has eliminated private property—relying on highly developed productive forces and rich material wealth—can create the conditions for the well-rounded development of every member of society, thereby realizing a fulfilling spiritual life. In this social formation, "the free development of each is the condition for the free development of all," and spiritual life will also move toward freedom and comprehensiveness. From the dimension of "freedom," every individual can refine themselves according to their own thoughts and will; from the "well-rounded" dimension, productive labor provides the individual with opportunities to comprehensively develop both physical and intellectual faculties.
II. Marx’s Critique of Various Unscientific Views of Spiritual Life
Spiritual life is an important lifestyle through which humanity acquires the meaning and value of life. Through his critique of the "abstract" spiritual life of traditional metaphysics, the "illusory" spiritual life under the control of medieval religion, the "reified" spiritual life under the logic of capital, and the "one-sided" spiritual life of capitalist society, Marx achieved a comprehensive and thorough understanding of the view of spiritual life.
(1) A critique of the "abstract" spiritual life that merely interprets the world
Whether it was the transcendent spiritual view of traditional Western society, the transcendental spiritual view of modern philosophy centered on "self-spirit," Hegel’s theory of "Absolute Spirit," or Feuerbach’s spiritual view based on sensory intuition, these theories all relied on abstract speculation for explanation, causing spiritual life to fall into a state of abstraction.
Marx criticized Hegel’s "abstract speculative understanding" of spiritual life. Hegel abstracted spiritual life into a process of pure theoretical speculation, using "Absolute Spirit" to explain reality through ideas, thoughts, and concepts, which caused the practicality of spiritual life to be obscured by logical deduction. Marx argued: "The only labor which Hegel knows and recognizes is abstractly mental labor." Hegel viewed human spiritual life as the product of speculative logic, which resulted in spiritual life being unable to drive social progress, becoming instead a formal deduction divorced from actual needs. Simultaneously, Marx criticized Feuerbach’s "abstract sensory-intuitive understanding" of spiritual life. Although Feuerbach revealed spiritual life from a realistic level, he remained at the level of sensory intuition and failed to recognize the practical nature of spiritual life. Marx pointed out that Feuerbach "does not conceive sensuousness as practical activity"; at most, he could only "achieve an intuition of single individuals and of civil society." He "resolves the religious essence into the human essence," but the human essence is conceived only as an "abstract—isolated—human individual." Consequently, spiritual life became an abstract existence supported by "religious feeling" or a "religion of the heart."
(2) A critique of the "illusory" spiritual life of the "beyond"
The dominance of religion over politics and civil society in the Middle Ages caused people to indulge in an illusory "world beyond" (the yonder), ignoring the real "world here and now" (this side), leading to the spiritual world being shrouded in religious mist. Marx criticized the illusory happiness provided by religion, emphasizing a focus on the spiritual life of the real world to achieve true earthly happiness.
Marx believed that religious control over human spiritual life operated in two aspects: first, the external political state controlled spiritual life through religion. For instance, the Prussian rulers took the supreme deity worshipped by Christianity as the state’s highest faith, utilizing Christianity to exert ideological and spiritual control over the people, with the fundamental goal of maintaining the interests of the ruling class. Second, the internal spiritual life of civil society was influenced by religion. Religion numbed the members of civil society into accepting real-world suffering, pursuing happiness in the afterlife through self-redemption. Marx criticized this profoundly, famously stating that "religion is the opium of the people" and "the criticism of religion is the prerequisite of all criticism." Marx’s fundamental purpose in criticizing religion was to make people discard illusions about the "world beyond" and instead focus on and realize happiness in reality. He clearly stated: "The abolition of religion as the illusory happiness of the people is the demand for their real happiness." Through a thorough critique of religion, Marx aimed to lay the foundation for spiritual life in the real world.
(3) A critique of the "reified" spiritual life under the logic of capital
The essence of the logic of capital is the pursuit of valorization and profit maximization. With the development of productive forces and the expansion of capitalist private property, people's spiritual life gradually fell into the trap of "reification" (物化), losing its transcendence and freedom. Marx was committed to liberating spiritual life from the "reification" caused by the logic of capital and returning it to the essential development of the human being.
Marx believed that in capitalist society, material interests override all beliefs. Under the control of the logic of capital, people establish connections according to the exchange value of "things"; social relations between people are transformed into social relations between things, human capacities are alienated into the capacities of things, and the meaning of life is determined by the satisfaction of material desires. People prostrated themselves before the "pomegranate skirts" [4] of capitalist fetishism, becoming total slaves to capital, commodities, and money. Marx criticized: "The bourgeoisie has torn away from the family its sentimental veil, and has reduced the family relation to a mere money relation." He further pointed out that the emotional and interpersonal connections between people had been stripped away, causing spiritual life to wither severely. In fact, Marx’s critique of the reification of spiritual life did not deny spiritual life itself; rather, it revealed the reifying logic of capitalist private property, urging people to reclaim their own essence and promote the free and conscious development of spiritual life.
(4) A critique of the "one-sided" spiritual life of capitalist society
Marx divided human society into societies of "personal dependence," "objective dependence," [5] and "the all-round development of individuals." Capitalism is characterized by "personal dependence on objects." Marx critiqued capitalism for stifling human freedom and integrity, causing individuals to fall into "one-sided" development.
Marx believed that spiritual life essentially pursues freedom, all-round development, richness, and transcendence. However, the social division of labor under capitalist private ownership shackles people to specific roles. As he noted: "Each man has a particular, exclusive sphere of activity, which is forced upon him and from which he cannot escape." The social division of labor fragments spiritual and material labor, enjoyment and work, production and consumption, assigning them to different individuals. This involuntary division of labor undermines the all-round development of people’s spiritual lives, making workers feel pain and oppression in their labor; while labor gives birth to beauty, it leaves the worker deformed; while labor brings wisdom, it renders the worker dull. For the capitalist, spiritual life likewise becomes deformed within this division. They are like a merchant dealing in minerals who cares only for their commercial value while ignoring their aesthetic and unique qualities, possessing "no mineralogical sense." Marx critiqued: "For as soon as the distribution of labor comes into being, each man has a particular, exclusive sphere of activity... this fixation of social activity... is one of the chief factors in historical development up till now." Consequently, the possibility of the all-round development of human spiritual life is lost.
III. Marx’s Reflections on Building a Scientific Spiritual Life
Marx pointed out: "All forms and products of consciousness cannot be dissolved by mental criticism, by resolution into ‘self-consciousness’ or transformation into ‘apparitions,’ ‘specters,’ ‘fancies,’ etc., but only by the practical overthrow of the actual social relations which gave rise to this idealistic humbug." Therefore, Marx’s understanding of spiritual life did not remain at the level of critique but was committed to building a new world that promotes the spiritual liberation of the people.
(1) Taking material productive practice as the foundation: Building a "practical" spiritual life that changes the world
Marx recognized that when faced with real issues such as political and material interests, abstract spiritual life could provide no solutions. Only a spiritual life established on the basis of actual social practice can change the world. Therefore, Marx’s critique of "abstract" spiritual life aimed to construct a "practical" spiritual life that changes the world.
Practice is the only path to awakening human self-consciousness and achieving human spiritual liberation. “‘Spiritual production’ is the activity within ‘practice’ that possesses transcendence, is most subjective, and best embodies the ‘species-essence’ [6] of humanity.” Human spiritual liberation is not a castle in the air but is rooted in actual social practice and revolutionary movements. Communism is not merely an ideal; it is a practical reality. Marx noted: "Communism is for us not a state of affairs which is to be established, an ideal to which reality [will] have to adjust itself. We call communism the real movement which abolishes the present state of things." Through proletarian revolution, the capitalist social system, concepts, and ideology are overthrown, and a thought and spiritual life suited to a communist society are established. Marx also emphasized that the necessity of revolution lies not only in overthrowing the ruling class but also because only in a revolution can the proletariat discard old ideas and reconstruct society. Through revolution, the proletariat thoroughly breaks with the concepts of capitalist society, thereby creating the conditions for a spiritual life characterized by individual freedom and all-round development in a communist society.
(2) Taking the socially real person as the subject: Building a "real" spiritual life of the hither world
Marx pointed out, "Religion is from the outset transcendent consciousness, which arises from real forces," and "Real liberation can be realized only in the real world and by using real means." Thus, Marx’s critique of the "false" spiritual life of the "beyond" aimed to awaken the spiritual consciousness of the "real person" and achieve individual spiritual liberation.
Marx believed that human existence is essentially their real-life process, rather than a shadowy existence in "heaven." He noted: "Man is no abstract being squatting outside the world. Man is the world of man, the state, society. This state, this society, produce religion, an inverted world-consciousness, because they are an inverted world." Therefore, the core of the struggle against religion lies in opposing religion as an illusory spiritual solace. Marx’s anti-religious struggle aimed to rebuild a spiritual life truly belonging to the "real person," urging people to turn from the "other world" to the "real world," from "heaven" to "earth," and to transform spiritual reliance from "blessings in the next life" into "happiness in the present life." Meanwhile, Marx also revealed that the holy image of religion is essentially the product of the alienation of the human essence. "Once the holy form of human self-estrangement has been unmasked, the next task of philosophy, which is in the service of history, is to unmask self-estrangement in its unholy forms." Therefore, Marx's critique turned from heaven to earth, from religion to law, and from theology to politics. By examining real social politics and law, he promoted the return of the human essence and spiritual liberation, ultimately building a spiritual life belonging to the "human" of the real world.
(3) Taking universal free social interaction as the method: Building a "humanistic" spiritual life of social logic
Marx critiqued the way "capital logic" leads to the reification of spiritual life and advocated for the dominance of "social logic" to build a spiritual life centered on human existence and development. Through universal and free social interaction, individuals escape the shackles of reified relations, consciously develop their self-awareness, and construct an autonomous spiritual life.
Spiritual life is an important component of the all-round development of the person and depends on the social relations built through universal free interaction. Marx noted: "The all-roundness of the individual is not an imagined or thought all-roundness, but the all-roundness of his real and ideal relations." However, under capitalist private ownership, individuals are constrained by class structures, and modes of interaction are dominated by "interest relations," "money relations," and "capital relations," with the satisfaction of material desires as the core goal. Therefore, Marx believed that "all relations in which man is a debased, enslaved, forsaken, despicable being must be overthrown," revealing the true state of human spiritual life and its roots in the social system, and liberating human spiritual life from narrow patterns of social interaction. Only in a communist society can the opposition between the individual and society be fundamentally eliminated. The individual is no longer limited by class identity but becomes a member of a community, achieving free development on the basis of communal ownership of the means of production and voluntary division of labor. Universal free interaction provides the conditions for the enrichment and development of spiritual life, allowing the individual to truly become the subject and goal of social development.
(4) Taking the all-round development of the person as the orientation: Building the "comprehensive" spiritual life of communist society
Marx believed that the capitalist mode of production turns workers into mere tools of labor due to the rigid division of labor, resulting in the one-sided development of individual labor capacity and spiritual life. Therefore, he committed himself to overthrowing the capitalist social system and building a spiritual life in communist society oriented toward the all-round development of the person.
Communist society is the highest stage of human social development. Its goals lie in the extreme abundance of material wealth, the high harmony of social relations, and the comprehensive elevation of spiritual realms, enabling everyone to develop freely and in an all-round way. In Marx's vision, mandatory division of labor will be replaced by voluntary and free division of labor. Individual labor will be determined by social need and will no longer be guided by personal interest but will serve as part of social connection to meet collective needs. Individuals, free from the constraints of external alien forces, can freely choose their spheres of activity, exert their individuality and talents, and enjoy a rich material and spiritual life. As Marx said: "In communist society, where nobody has one exclusive sphere of activity but each can become accomplished in any branch he wishes, society regulates the general production." In this form, class antagonism is eliminated, replaced by a new society composed of an association of free individuals. Humanity escapes dependency on objects, achieving a great abundance of material life and the all-round development of spiritual life, thereby truly attaining the free and all-round development of the individual.
IV. The Contemporary Manifestation of Marx’s View of Spiritual Life
General Secretary Xi Jinping has clearly emphasized that one of the essential requirements of Chinese-path modernization is "enriching the people’s spiritual world." Marx’s view of spiritual life points the way for enriching the people’s spiritual world in the New Era. We must adhere to Marx’s view of spiritual life as our guide, continuously advance the practice of socialism with Chinese characteristics, uphold the value pursuit of "putting the people first," promote universal free interaction in human society, strengthen our conviction in the lofty ideal of communism, and work untiringly toward the enrichment of the people’s spiritual world.
(1) Advancing the practice of socialism with Chinese characteristics to lay the foundation for enriching the people’s spiritual world
Marx’s view of spiritual life emphasizes that enriching the people’s spiritual world is not just an ideological construction but a process of social practice. The more fully economy, politics, and culture develop, the more complete the resources and conditions for spiritual life become. We should continuously advance the practice of socialism with Chinese characteristics to lay a solid foundation for the enrichment of the people’s spiritual world.
First, regarding economic development, we must implement the New Development Philosophy, promote the New Development Dynamic, and advance high-quality development to provide a solid material guarantee for enriching the people’s spiritual world. Second, regarding political development, we must adhere to and develop whole-process people's democracy, ensure that the people are the masters of the country, remain firm on the path of socialism with Chinese characteristics, and satisfy the people’s spiritual pursuits for democracy, the rule of law, fairness, and justice. Third, regarding cultural development, we must adhere to socialist core values, pass on fine traditional Chinese culture, develop advanced socialist culture, strengthen cultural confidence, and meet the people’s growing spiritual and cultural needs. Fourth, regarding social development, we must improve the system for ensuring people's wellbeing, increase the level of equalization of public services, and provide a solid social foundation for enriching the people’s spiritual world. Fifth, regarding ecological development, we must adhere to green development, promote the harmonious coexistence of man and nature, build a Beautiful China, and provide a favorable natural spiritual home for the people. By promoting the coordinated development of the Five-Sphere Integrated Plan (economic, political, cultural, social, and ecological), we will create a more fulfilling and higher-quality spiritual and cultural life.
(2) Adhering to the value pursuit of "putting the people first" to provide momentum for enriching the people’s spiritual world
The subject of Marx’s view of spiritual life is the "socially real person." Therefore, enriching the people’s spiritual world must start from the socially real person, adhere to the value concept of putting the people first, and treat "all the people" as the subject of the spiritual world.
First, we must insist on treating the masses of the people as the subjective force for enriching the people’s spiritual world. Spiritual wealth stems from the material production and intellectual creation of the people and cannot be separated from the great practice of the masses. Therefore, we must rely on the practice of the people to create more spiritual and cultural products and resources. Second, we must insist on taking the satisfaction of the people’s spiritual needs as the fundamental momentum for enriching the spiritual world. Regarding human needs, Marx once pointed out that "their need is their nature." The continuous development of the people's spiritual and cultural needs provides a directional guide for enriching the people's spiritual world. Therefore, "we must always adhere to the principal status of the masses, increase the supply of cultural products, improve the level of public cultural services, and satisfy the people’s spiritual needs across multiple levels, dimensions, and aspects." Third, we must insist on treating the masses of the people as the shared subjects for enriching the people’s spiritual world. We must use the socialist concept of "sharing" to transcend the capitalist logic of "exploitation," enabling all people to equally participate in, create, and enjoy social culture, preventing the widening of a spiritual life gap, and ensuring that everyone can enjoy a rich spiritual and cultural life.
(3) Promoting universal free social interaction to create conditions for enriching the people’s spiritual world
Marx’s view of spiritual life identifies universal free interaction as the way to escape the "reified" logic of spiritual life. To promote the enrichment of the people’s spiritual world in the New Era, we must persist in standing at the heights of "world history" to provide it with a global vision.
First, promoting exchange and mutual learning among the spiritual civilizations of all nations. "World cultures are colorful and diverse; they differ only like various flowers in a garden [9], but they never differ in terms of rank, superiority, or inferiority. Every culture has its own characteristics and essence, and the culture of every nation and every country should receive respect and recognition." We should adhere to the concepts of equality, mutual learning, dialogue, and inclusiveness in civilizational interaction. Through exchange, we can bridge divides; through mutual learning, we can transcend conflict; and through coexistence, we can transcend feelings of superiority, thereby realizing free exchange and shared prosperity in the spiritual world. Second, disseminating and carrying forward the common values of all humanity. General Secretary Xi Jinping has proposed that "peace, development, fairness, justice, democracy, and freedom are the common values of all humanity," reflecting humanity’s aspiration for a better life and a consensus on spiritual values. These values should be promoted to provide spiritual impetus for addressing global challenges such as mass extinction, climate change, the wealth gap, and cybersecurity, realizing the shared pursuit of a happy life for the people of all nations. Third, jointly building a community of human spiritual life. Marx pointed out that "only in community with others has each individual the means of cultivating his gifts in all directions." A community with a shared future for humanity is not only a community of economic development but also a community of spiritual civilization. We should transcend the class and geographical limitations of capitalist spiritual civilization, construct a global pattern of symbiotic and shared spiritual prosperity, and promote the emergence and development of a new form of human spiritual civilization.
(4) Persistence in the lofty ideals and beliefs of Communism to provide direction for enriching the people’s spiritual world.
Marx's view of spiritual life reveals that the ultimate goal of spiritual life is to achieve the free and well-rounded development of the individual in a communist society. This process is a long journey. We must remain firm in our communist ideals and beliefs, maintaining the conviction that under conditions of highly developed productive forces and abundant material wealth, the significance of spiritual life for human free individuality and well-rounded development will become even more prominent.
First, discarding the false ideology of the bourgeoisie. Bourgeois ideas and concepts reflect their relations of production and ownership structures; they are deeply constrained by material conditions and embody their class interests. To maintain their rule, the bourgeoisie distorts narrow class interests into universal interests, leading to the limited development of the working class. We must deeply recognize the falsity of bourgeois ideology, eliminate class exploitation and oppression, and effect a radical rupture with its ideology. Second, establishing a communist social ideology. Marx believed that the superstructure of society is composed of different sentiments, modes of thought, and outlooks on life. The goal of the communist revolution is to achieve the most radical rupture with traditional ownership relations and traditional ideas. Based on socialist public ownership, we should establish a socialist ideology with strong cohesion and guiding power, promote core socialist values, and facilitate the enrichment of the people's spiritual life and the free and well-rounded development of individuals. Third, struggling unremittingly to enrich the people's spiritual world. From the perspective of the laws of spiritual life’s development, spiritual life develops alongside the development of material production; old ideas are constantly replaced by new ones that become the "eternal truths" of the era. Marx also pointed out: "The influences of the external world upon man express themselves in his brain, are reflected therein... and in this form become 'ideal forces.'" Therefore, we must remain firm in our communist ideals and beliefs, transcend bourgeois exploitation and spiritual reification, establish a new world where everyone enjoys free and well-rounded development, and realize the spiritual liberation of all humanity.
(The author is an Associate Professor at the Lizhi [Aspire] College of Xi’an Jiaotong University) Source: Theoretical Exploration (Lilun tansuo), Issue 4, 2025 Web Editor: Paul