Ma Qiuli and Zhang Yonghuai: "Triple Dimensions and Six Aspects": An Analysis of the Compatibility Between Marxism and Fine Traditional Chinese Culture
In his important speech at the ceremony marking the 100th anniversary of the founding of the Communist Party of China, General Secretary Xi Jinping explicitly proposed for the first time the important thesis of "persisting in combining the basic tenets of Marxism with China's fine traditional culture" (namely, the "second combination"). The Sixth Plenary Session of the 19th CPC Central Committee subsequently incorporated this into the Resolution of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China on the Major Achievements and Historical Experience of the Party’s Centennial Struggle. The report to the 20th National Congress of the CPC emphasized once again: "To uphold and develop Marxism, we must combine it with China’s fine traditional culture." In his important speech at the Meeting on Cultural Inheritance and Development, General Secretary Xi Jinping discussed the "second combination" multiple times and pointed out that although the two have different sources, "there exists a high degree of compatibility between them... only through mutual compatibility can an organic combination occur." The "second combination" is a profound theoretical proposition concerning the firm rooting of Marxism in China and the flourishing of the tree of Marxist truth. It "allows us to fully utilize the precious resources of China’s fine traditional culture within a broader cultural space, exploring future-oriented theoretical and institutional innovations," and has thus become an important component of Xi Jinping Thought on Culture. Based on relevant academic research, providing a scholarly explanation of this mutual compatibility carries significant theoretical and practical weight for the continuous advancement of the "second combination" and a deep understanding of Xi Jinping Thought on Culture.
The high degree of compatibility between Marxism and China's fine traditional culture serves as the intrinsic foundation and prerequisite for their combination. "The prerequisite for 'combination' is mutual compatibility... only through mutual compatibility can an organic combination occur." This compatibility is manifested in multiple aspects: "China’s fine traditional culture is long-standing and profound; it is the crystallization of the wisdom of Chinese civilization. Elements contained therein—such as the world belongs to the public [1], the people as the foundation of the state [2], governing by virtue [3], breaking with the old to establish the new [4], appointing the virtuous and capable [5], the unity of heaven and humanity [6], self-reliance and continuous self-improvement [7], great virtue carries all things [8], maintaining credibility and cultivating harmony [9], and being benevolent toward neighbors [10]—are important manifestations of the worldview, outlook on the world (Tianxia), social outlook, and moral outlook accumulated by the Chinese people in their long-term production and life. They possess a high degree of compatibility with the values and propositions of scientific socialism." The compatibility between Marxism and China's fine traditional culture can be excavated and elucidated from many angles. Regarding the logical trajectory of their combination, the many points of compatibility are not merely parallel or equivalent; rather, they manifest as a three-layered progression from the external to the internal, from the surface to the essence. Each layer of compatibility is primarily reflected in two dimensions; these three layers thus total six dimensions, which we call "Three Layers and Six Dimensions." This article will explore the issue of compatibility between Marxism and China's fine traditional culture from this perspective.
I. The First Layer of Compatibility: Compatibility of Theoretical Nature
The first layer of compatibility is between the cultural genes of China's fine traditional culture and the theoretical nature of Marxism. This broadest level of compatibility provides the precondition for their combination. The reason their combination can occur is precisely because the cultural genes of China’s fine traditional culture—openness, inclusiveness, and breaking with the old to establish the new—match the open and developing theoretical nature of Marxism. It is difficult to imagine a combination between two closed theoretical systems. The first layer of compatibility is mainly reflected in the following two dimensions:
(1) The compatibility between the cultural genes of openness and inclusiveness in China’s fine traditional culture and the open theoretical character of Marxism
The cultural genes of "harmony without uniformity" [11] and openness and inclusiveness have allowed China’s fine traditional culture to remain vibrant and passed down to the present day. Shi Bo proposed that "harmony actually produces things, while sameness leads to no succession" (Guoyu: Zheng Yu). Confucius advocated "harmony without uniformity" (Analects: Zilu). The Book of Rites: Doctrine of the Mean advocates that "all things are nourished together without injuring one another; ways are pursued in parallel without contradicting one another." This cultural spirit of respecting differences and embracing diversity allows Chinese culture to be "all-inclusive" [12] and "great because of its capacity." Regarding cultural origins, the Yangshao and Dawenkou cultures of the middle and lower reaches of the Yellow River, the Hongshan culture of Inner Mongolia, the Dadiwan culture of Gansu, the Chu and Bashu cultures of the Yangtze River basin, and the Hemodu culture of Zhejiang together constituted Chinese traditional culture in its initial stage. Regarding cultural exchange and mutual learning, the openness and inclusiveness of China’s fine traditional culture are also reflected in a consistent orientation toward "an open mind like a valley" [13], actively absorbing and learning from the excellent achievements of different civilizations. Historically, during the process of "Western learning spreading to the East" (Xixue Dongjian), Western mathematics, medicine, geography, geology, surveying, chemistry, physics, and various social science trends were introduced to China. Through the collision and exchange of Chinese and Western cultures, they were gradually absorbed by Chinese culture, exerting a major influence on China's economy, politics, culture, and society. As General Secretary Xi Jinping stated: "Chinese civilization is an open system formed through continuous exchange and mutual learning with other civilizations. From the eastward spread of Buddhism and the 'convergence of Islam and Confucianism' in history, to the 'Western learning spreading to the East,' the New Culture Movement, and the introduction of Marxism and socialist thought to China in modern times, to the all-around opening up since reform and opening up, Chinese civilization has always remained fresh through inclusive absorption." Thus, "harmony without uniformity" and the "inclusion of a hundred rivers" have endowed Chinese culture with enduring vitality, making it the only ancient culture among the four great ancient civilizations that has continued without interruption.
Similarly, Marxism possesses an open theoretical character. As a theory, it "was produced on the basis of critically absorbing all the excellent civilizational achievements created by humanity." First, at its inception, Marxist theory absorbed the essence of human thought and culture. The three major scientific discoveries of the 19th century provided the natural science prerequisites for its birth. German classical philosophy, English classical political economy, and British and French Utopian Socialism provided the intellectual sources. Second, the openness of Marxism is prominently reflected in its "world history" perspective when analyzing problems. Marx's theory of world history clearly embodies this openness; it transcends the narrow vision of previous theories, focusing on the goal of human liberation and paying attention to the development of every country and nation, including China, within the context of world history. For instance, he wrote a series of discourses on ancient China, believing that it would welcome the dawn of a "Republic of China" in the near future. Finally, the openness of Marxism is reflected in its critique and correction of dogmatism. Engels stated plainly: "Marx's whole way of thinking... offers not ready-made dogmas, but starting points for further investigation and the method for such investigation." The characteristic of Marxism as a principle rather than a dogma highlights the openness of the theory itself, preventing it from falling into the trap of self-imposed limitations and leaving space for future Marxists to engage in open interpretation and practice.
In short, Marxism is "the scientific theory in human history with the least sectarian narrowness and the least rejection of various nations and national cultures; it easily gains recognition among the broad masses of people with different national cultural backgrounds."
(2) The compatibility between the cultural genes of "breaking with the old to establish the new" in China’s fine traditional culture and the developmental theoretical character of Marxism
The cultural genes of "breaking with the old to establish the new" (Gegu Dingxin) and "constant renewal" (Rixin Youxin) have kept Chinese culture fresh through the ages. The line "Though Zhou is an ancient state, its mission is renewal" from the Book of Songs: King Wen was highly esteemed by later Confucians. The Book of Changes (Zhouyi), which reflects the level of abstract thinking during the Two Zhou dynasties, has "change" (bianyi) as its core spirit. The Ge and Ding hexagrams contain profound philosophies regarding "reform and adjustment" and "breaking with the old to establish the new," as well as certain laws of change in the objective world. "Change when exhausted, flow when changed, endure when flowing" is the great meaning of reform, while "establishing the new" (dingxin) signifies new vitality. "Daily renewal is called supreme virtue" (Book of Changes: Xici I), "If you can improve yourself in a day, do so each day, and forever" (Great Learning), and "to move in tandem with the times" (Book of Changes: Qian Wenyan) represent the basic spirit of China’s fine traditional culture. These genes drove traditional culture to continuously evolve from Pre-Qin schools of thought to Han Dynasty classical studies, Wei-Jin "Dark Learning" (Xuanxue), Sui-Tang Buddhism, Song-Ming Neo-Confucianism, and the Qianlong-Jiaqing school of the Qing Dynasty. While the forms changed, the spirit of "daily renewal" remained constant. The reason Chinese culture remains ever-new lies in the philosophical wisdom of "finding the constant within change" and "the constant existing in change" throughout the process of reform. As General Secretary Xi Jinping said: "For a civilization to endure, it needs both the passing of the torch and guardianship through generations, and even more, the need to follow the trends of the time and 'push out the old to bring forth the new' (tuichen chuxin)."
Development is a distinctive feature of Marxism. Facing the questions of "where is capitalism going" and "where is humanity going" in their era, Marx and Engels founded Marxist theory based on a deep understanding of the deep-rooted ills of capitalism, responding to the practical and theoretical needs of the labor movement, and absorbing all excellent intellectual achievements in human history.
Marxism did not exhaust the truth but opened a scientific path toward it. Marx and Engels always opposed dogmatic understandings of their theory. Marx pointed out: "If [my critic] must transform my historical sketch of the genesis of capitalism in Western Europe into an historico-philosophic theory of the marche générale imposed by fate upon every people, whatever the historic circumstances in which it finds itself... he does me at once too much honor and too much insult." Engels also noted: "Our theory is a theory of development, not a dogma to be learned by heart and repeated mechanically." As it spread from its Western European birthplace to the whole world, Marxism—in the process of guiding the development of the socialist cause—needed to be combined with the specific realities and characteristics of the times in each country to achieve its own development. Sinicization (and localization generally) refers to the process by which the basic tenets of Marxism are combined with national conditions to take root, blossom, and bear fruit; adaptation to the times (shidaihua) refers to the process of combining these tenets with the characteristics of the era to answer new questions, always grasping and leading the times. Localization reflects the spatial dimension of Marxist innovation, while adaptation to the times reflects the temporal dimension; the two are organically unified. Based on a scientific analysis of capitalism in its imperialist stage, Lenin proposed that socialist revolution could first occur and succeed in one or several countries. In leading the Russian Revolution and construction, he combined Marxist tenets with Russia’s specific reality, developing Marxism into the stage of Leninism. Specifically in China, the developmental nature of Marxism is necessarily manifested in the process of Sinicization and adaptation to the times. Marxists of different eras and regions have excavated and expanded the meaningful capacity and theoretical space of basic Marxist tenets from both theoretical and practical levels, promoting the advancement of Marxism with the times.
Taken together, the cultural genes of openness, inclusiveness, and innovation in China’s fine traditional culture have entered the life and blood of the Chinese people, constituting the cultural self of the Chinese and shaping their "Chineseness." This provided an important hermeneutical background and interpretive subject for the introduction and Sinicization of Marxism. China’s fine traditional culture, as a form of "pre-understanding," became the effective theoretical prerequisite for the Chinese people to interpret Marxism. However, theoretical prerequisites alone are insufficient to fully explain the combination; one must also explore the compatibility of "spiritual temperament."
II. The Second Layer of Compatibility: Compatibility in Spiritual Temperament
Compatibility in spiritual temperament is the second layer of compatibility between Marxism and China’s fine traditional culture and is a key factor in their combination. This is mainly manifested in two dimensions: the commonality of dialectical thinking and the similarity of the practical spirit.
(1) Commonality in dialectical thinking
China’s fine traditional culture contains rich dialectical thought. In terms of connotation and essence, these share a subtle similarity with the dialectical thinking of the basic tenets of Marxism.
The Book of Changes is called the "head of the Six Classics." The name "Yi" (Change) is inherently related to "transformation"; it is the unity of change (bianyi) and non-change (buyi). The so-called "the changer is the non-changer" means neither can be neglected, which is the true essence of dialectics. For example, the Xici Zhan II of the Book of Changes emphasizes transformation: "The Book of Changes is a book that cannot be far removed; its Dao is ever-altering. Transformation and movement do not stay in one place; they flow through the six voids. Up and down have no constancy; the firm and the soft alternate. It cannot be taken as a fixed rule; it follows only where change leads." This contains the reasons for transformation and the promotion of change through contradiction. Furthermore, "the interaction of Yin and Yang is called the Dao," "the firm and the soft push against each other, producing change" (Xici Zhan I), and "Being and non-being create each other; difficult and easy complement each other; long and short define each other; high and low tilt toward each other; tone and voice harmonize with each other; front and back follow each other" (Tao Te Ching: Chapter 2). These thoughts all reflect the dialectical wisdom of China’s fine traditional culture in valuing contradiction and its unity.
In the fine traditional Chinese culture, the idea of "change" (变易, biànyì) is primarily theorized from the perspective of a worldview. In the Classic of Changes (易经, Yìjīng), the "Appended Phrases II" (系辞传下, Xìcí Zhuàn Xià) states: "Heaven and earth interact, and all things are transformed and refined; the masculine and feminine energies intertwine, and all things are transformed and born." Laozi's Daodejing (Chapter 42) remarks: "The myriad things shoulder the yin and embrace the yang, blending these breaths [14] to achieve harmony." Wang Chong, in the "Nature" chapter of Balanced Discourses (论衡∙自然篇, Lùnhéng: Zìrán Piān), writes: "Heaven covers above and Earth lies below; the breath from below steams upward, and the breath from above descends; the myriad things are spontaneously born in between." These all construct a traditional Chinese worldview based on the movement and transformation of qi.
"Invariance" (不易, bùyì), in terms of cosmology, refers to the invariant laws and constant order contained within "change." The transformations of the universe are fluid and never-settled (流动不居, liúdòng bùjū); yet within this constant flux, there is an unchanging operational order. As the "Appended Phrases II" says: "The sun goes and the moon comes; the moon goes and the sun comes—the sun and moon push each other and light is born. The cold goes and the heat comes; the heat goes and the cold comes—cold and heat push each other and the year is completed." In the process of the universe's generation and transformation, the laws of the movement of the sun and moon and the succession of the four seasons remain constant and unchanging. "Change" ensures the universe remains in a state of perpetual flow, while "invariance" ensures the universe changes without falling into chaos and possesses constancy. Constancy within change, and change within constancy, reveal a universe of "unceasing procreation" (生生不息, shēngshēng bùxī) [15].
The concept of dialectics in fine traditional Chinese culture inherently contains a basic thread composed of "one dividing into two" (一分为二) and "two combining into one" (合二而一), manifesting the basic structure upon which dialectics unfolds and completes itself. The Song Dynasty Confucian Zhu Xi noted in his Collected Commentaries on the Doctrine of the Mean: "The book begins by speaking of one principle (理, lǐ), scatters in the middle into ten thousand affairs, and finally reunites as one principle." This transition from "one principle" to "ten thousand affairs" actually contains the internal structure of "one dividing into two," while the "reunion of ten many affairs into one principle" is the completion of "two combining into one."
Marxism similarly emphasizes the change, development, and laws of the world. Marx believed: "In its rational form, [dialectics] is a scandal and abomination to bourgeoisdom... because it includes in its comprehension and affirmative recognition of the existing state of things, at the same time also, the recognition of the negation of that state, of its inevitable breaking up; because it regards every historically developed social form as in fluid movement, and therefore takes into account its transient nature not less than its momentary existence." Engels pointed out: "For [dialectical philosophy], nothing is final, absolute, sacred. It reveals the transitory character of everything and in everything; nothing can endure before it except the uninterrupted process of becoming and of passing away, of unending ascendancy from the lower to the higher." Marxism views all things and phenomena as processes of existence and understands them from the perspective of their transience, which accords with the Confucian concept of "unceasing procreation." Engels argued: "The world is not to be apprehended as a complex of ready-made things, but as a complex of processes, in which the things apparently stable... go through an uninterrupted change of coming into being and passing away." The generation and destruction of the world follow objective laws and are in a state of constant change.
The law of the unity of opposites is the core of Marxist dialectics, referring to the opposition and mutual transformation between things and within things. "Besides 'either-or,' it recognizes in the right place 'both-and' and reconciles the opposites." Marx noted: "The coexistence of two contradictory sides, their conflict and their fusion into a new category, constitutes the dialectical movement." Engels believed: "All differences become merged in intermediate stages, and all opposites pass into one another through intermediate links." On this issue, Lenin also spoke: "Dialectics is the teaching which shows how opposites can be and how they happen to be (how they become) identical—under what conditions they are identical, becoming transformed into one another." In a certain sense, the opposites of a contradiction are both a process of generation and a process of continuous dissolution within dialectical movement.
Marxist dialectics is an inversion of Hegel's dialectics of the "Absolute Spirit," which stood on its head; it found a brand-new primordial foundation for dialectics—namely, human practical activity. In other words, in Hegel’s context, the dialectical "triad" is merely a logical deduction, whereas Marx placed it within the context of the historical manifestation of human social existence and the internal structure of its completion. Dialectical unfolding is nothing but the active construction process of human practical activity. Precisely for this reason, Marx and Engels created the historical materialist conception of history and the theory of surplus value, explained the general laws of human social development, and pointed out the path for humanity to leap from the "realm of necessity" to the "realm of freedom." From this, we can see that the profundity of the Marxist view of world development lies in seeing development within change and discovering laws within development.
Advanced Chinese intellectuals have, without exception, understood Marxist dialectics and the world development view through the lens of the fine traditional Chinese culture by which they were deeply influenced. From translation and comprehension to the exploration of the combination of the two in a spontaneous sense, and finally to the conscious integration of the two, the key rationale is the compatibility (契合, qìhé) between the two in terms of dialectical thinking.
(2) The Spiritual Resemblance in Practical Spirit
The common emphasis on the practical spirit or practical character (实践品格, shíjiàn pǐngé) by both fine traditional Chinese culture and Marxism also demonstrates their spiritual resemblance (神似, shénsì). Both have a spiritual temperament that highly values practice or "actual fulfillment" (践履, jiànlǚ). Marxism emphasizes the internal unity of theory and practice, while fine traditional Chinese culture—Confucianism in particular—emphasizes the "unity of knowledge and action" (知行合一, zhī xíng hé yī). Their common orientation is to establish the absolute primordiality of "doing" (practice or fulfillment).
Fine traditional Chinese culture possesses a distinct practical character. In ancient China, the discussion of "action" (行, xíng) occurred in two contexts. First, it referred to general behavior or activity. Examples include "It is not the knowing that is difficult, but the doing" from the Book of Documents (尚书∙说命中, Shàngshū: Yuè Mìng Zhòng) and "Not having heard involves not as much as having heard; having heard involves not as much as having seen; having seen involves not as much as having known; having known involves not as much as having acted/practiced; learning reaches its limit in action/practice" from Xunzi (荀子∙儒效, Xúnzǐ: Rúxiào). Second, it referred to moral conduct. "Actual fulfillment" (践履, jiànlǚ) and "personal practice" (躬行, gōngxíng) were highly emphasized and promoted by Confucians. The Analects (Section "Xue Er") states: "A youth, when at home, should be filial, and, abroad, respectful to his elders. He should be earnest and truthful. He should overflow in love to all, and cultivate the friendship of the good. When he has time and opportunity, after the performance of these things, he should employ them in polite studies." The Analects (Section "Gongye Chang") notes: "When Zilu heard anything, if he had not yet succeeded in carrying it into practice, he was only afraid lest he should hear something else." Here, "action" refers to moral practice. Wang Tingxiang of the Ming Dynasty mentioned: "Earnest action and practical fulfillment (实践, shíjiàn) are used to maintain the mean of righteousness and principle; reforming faults and moving toward righteousness are used to reach the reality of virtue." This also emphasizes moral fulfillment.
"Benevolence" (仁, rén), the central theme of Confucianism, determines that the practical spirit of "actual fulfillment" constitutes the basic characteristic of Confucian thought. Regarding this core concept of "benevolence," Confucius never gave a precise definition. When different students asked about it, or the same student asked in different settings, Confucius's answers differed. His students did not ask from a conceptual perspective, but mainly asked how to become a benevolent person—that is, how to practice and fulfill benevolence. Confucius provided flexible guidance in the context of daily life, allowing disciples to reflect and intuit based on their circumstances. Benevolence can only be manifested, realized, and perceived through the practice of benevolent virtue. Thus, Confucius's answers told them the methods, effort (工夫, gōngfu), and cultivation of practicing benevolence, showing his emphasis on actual fulfillment. In the learning of Song and Ming Confucians, whenever "original substance" (本体, běntǐ) followed, "effort" (or "praxis") necessarily followed; substance and effort were two sides of the same coin, continuing the tradition of pre-Qin Confucianism. Liang Shuming directly claimed that for Confucius, "so-called learning was his life." In Mou Zongsan’s view, "broadly speaking, Eastern metaphysics is all practical metaphysics." The practicality of Confucianism is most prominent. This orientation toward "actual fulfillment" and "personal practice" values the "being-there" (亲在性, qīnzhàixìng) of the person, which determines its inevitable emphasis on the "present world" (现世, xiànshì). For instance, "The Master did not talk about extraordinary things, feats of strength, disorder, or spiritual beings" (Analects, "Shu Er"), and "While you do not know life, how can you know about death?" (Analects, "Xian Jin"). Or as Zhuangzi (Section "Discussion on Making All Things Equal") puts it: "Regarding what is outside the universe, the sage admits its existence but does not discuss it." These all emphasize the immediate life of the person—that is, an emphasis on the present world.
Confucianism’s emphasis on the priority of "action" is also reflected in the relationship between speech and action, and between knowledge and action. Regarding speech and action, Confucians favored action. Confucius once changed his view because of his student Zai Yu: "At first, my way with men was to hear their words and give them credit for their conduct. Now my way is to hear their words and look at their conduct" (Analects, "Gongye Chang"). Similar records abound in the Analects, such as "The superior man is ashamed of a reputation beyond his merits" (lit. "ashamed of his words exceeding his actions"), "The reason why the ancients did not readily give utterance to their words, was that they feared lest their actions should not come up to them," and "The superior man wishes to be slow in his speech and earnest in his conduct." Furthermore, the Doctrine of the Mean (中庸, Zhōngyōng) states: "In the discharge of the ordinary duties of life and in the exercise of ordinary care in his words, if there be any deficiency [the superior man] dares not but exert himself; and if there be any exuberance, he dares not allow himself free indulgence. His words have respect to his actions, and his actions have respect to his words; is it not just an entire sincerity which marks the superior man?" This is also an emphasis on action. "Action is difficult and often falls short, so one must encourage oneself to act with vigor. Speech is easy and often superfluous, so one should warn oneself against talking too much. Only when words and actions correspond can one be called a steadfast superior man."
Knowledge (知, zhī) and action (行, xíng) are philosophical categories in Chinese philosophy regarding the relationship between cognition and practice. "Knowledge" refers to the principles of conduct and points to human moral laws. "Action" refers to moral fulfillment. In this relationship, Confucianism emphasizes the priority of action, focusing more on moral fulfillment—namely, "realization through experience" (体认, tǐrèn) and "personal knowledge" (亲知, qīnzhī) in practice. Although later Confucians like Zhu Xi, Wang Yangming, and Wang Fuzhi had differences in their views on knowledge and action, the characteristic of valuing the practical spirit remained consistent. As Wang Fuzhi stated in Exegesis of the Four Books: "To know but not to act is as if one does not know."
The emphasis on practice is the most fundamental mark distinguishing Marxist philosophy from all old philosophies. Marx's Theses on Feuerbach, in a few hundred words, established a scientific view of practice, highlighting the practical character: "The philosophers have only interpreted the world in various ways; the point is to change it." Starting from practice, Marx further analyzed the essence of social life and human nature, advocating that social life should be understood as practice. He pointed out: "All social life is essentially practical. All mysteries which lead theory to mysticism find their rational solution in human practice and in the comprehension of this practice." "The human essence is no abstraction inherent in each single individual. In its reality it is the ensemble of the social relations." Marx and Engels emphasized the transformative role of practice in social life and its contradictory movements: "For the practical materialist, i.e., the communist, the whole problem is to revolutionize the existing world, to practically come to grips with and change the things found in existence." Thus, the materialist conception of history was formed. In a certain sense, practice for Marx not only has the significance of a worldview but is also the conceptual cornerstone of historical materialism. Marx called his own theory "practical materialism." In his writings, one can hardly find defining texts, only philosophical propositions about practice. In essence, Marx’s myriad words are nothing more than returning people to their state of "being-there."
Marx especially emphasized the priority of "practical relations" over "theoretical relations." "The question whether objective [gegenständliche] truth can be attributed to human thinking is not a question of theory but is a practical question. Man must prove the truth — i.e., the reality and power, the this-sidedness [Diesseitigkeit] of his thinking in practice." He himself was not a speculative philosopher who "sat and discussed the Way" (坐而论道, zuò ér lùn dào), but a practitioner who "rose and acted" (起而行之, qǐ ér xíng zhī). Marx focused on the present world; the "'this-worldliness' he sought is, in the final analysis, guaranteed by the presence of the human through their being-there." Marx pointed out: "The task of history, therefore, once the other-world of truth has vanished, is to establish the truth of this world." He preemptively established practice as the initial position for achieving the goal of "establishing the truth of this world." Engels also mentioned: "Socialism... seeks it in the present world, in the transformation of society." The true power of Marxist philosophy lies, in the final analysis, in "the evidence of its practical capacity." As Mao Zedong said, "The salvoes of the October Revolution brought us Marxism-Leninism"—it was precisely based on the outbreak and victory of the Russian October Revolution that the theory of Marxism became a convincing "material force," thereby achieving what Marx called "the evidence of practical capacity."
The emphasis on actual fulfillment (践履, jiànlǚ) and the spirit of "statecraft and practical utility" (经世致用, jīngshì zhìyòng) [16] in fine traditional Chinese culture bears a spiritual resemblance to the practical character of Marxism. This demonstrates a compatibility in their aims and spiritual temperaments—what is called "Sages of the East and Sages of the West have the same mind and the same principle."
III. The Third Dimension of Compatibility: Compatibility in Values
The third layer of compatibility between the two is at the level of values. A high degree of value compatibility serves as the internal rationale for their integration. General Secretary Xi Jinping has pointed out: "Marxism and fine traditional Chinese culture have different sources, but there is a high degree of compatibility between them. For instance, the social pursuit of the 'common good for all' ($tiān\ xià\ wéi\ gōng$) and 'upholding good faith and cultivating harmony' ($jiǎng\ xìn\ xiū\ mù$) is linked to the ideals and beliefs of communism and socialism; the governance ideas of 'people as the foundation of the state' ($mín\ wéi\ bāng\ běn$) and 'governing by virtue' ($wéi\ zhèng\ yǐ\ dé$) are integrated with the political concept of the supremacy of the people." The compatibility of values between the two is mainly manifested in two dimensions: the view of the masses and the view of social ideals.
(1) The Compatibility of "People as the Foundation" and "Governing by Virtue" with the Political Concept of the Supremacy of the People
The Book of Documents ($Shàngshū$) records: "The people are the foundation of the state; when the foundation is solid, the state is at peace" (The Song of the Five Sons); "Heaven sees as my people see, Heaven hears as my people hear" (The Great Declaration, Part II); and "What the people desire, Heaven will surely follow" (The Great Declaration, Part I). This reflects the people-oriented thinking ($mínběn$) [17] of fine traditional Chinese culture, which regards the common people as the core of the nation, views the support or opposition of the people as the decisive force in the rise and fall of a state, respects the will of the masses, and emphasizes showing them compassion and relying upon them. Confucian people-oriented thought is primarily embodied in aspects such as valuing the people, nurturing the people, enriching the people, and educating the people. The Analects mentions "the people" ($mín$) more than fifty times, such as: "Economy in expenditure and love for men; and the employment of the people at the proper seasons" (Xue Er); or "To give oneself earnestly to the duties due to the people, and, while respecting spiritual beings, to keep aloof from them" (Yong Ye). Confucius’s attitude toward the masses was primarily one of sympathy, understanding, care, and protection. In the Analects, there is no record of Confucius admonishing, rebuking, or condemning the common people; even when the world was in chaos, the blame was not to be placed on the masses. In Confucius’s view, if the people suffered, only the rulers were to blame; rulers should bear the responsibility and obligation toward the "people" to "increase their numbers, make them wealthy, and educate them."
Mencius proposed the idea that "the people are of supreme importance, the altars of the gods of earth and grain come next, and the ruler is the least important" (Jin Xin II), and further elaborated on Confucius's ideas of "increasing, enriching, and educating" (Zi Lu). In Mencius’s view, all political and economic systems are established for the people, and the ruler is likewise established for the people. Therefore, the ruler should "protect the people," believing that "if one becomes a king by protecting the people, no one can resist him" (King Hui of Liang I). How does one protect the people? First, by regulating the people's livelihood ($zhì\ mín\ zhī\ chǎn$). "Therefore, an enlightened ruler, in regulating the people's livelihood, must ensure that above, they have sufficient to serve their parents, and below, sufficient to support their wives and children; that in good years they shall always be filled, and in bad years they shall be preserved from death" (King Hui of Liang I). He argued that the people must have "permanent property" ($héngchǎn$). Second, by "extending kindness" to the people. Third, by "employing the people at the proper seasons." "If the seasons of agriculture be not interfered with, the grain will be more than can be eaten... if the axes enter the hills and forests only at the proper time, the wood will be more than can be used... let there be no neglect of the seasons for breeding chickens, pigs, dogs, and swine, and those of seventy years may eat meat" (King Hui of Liang I). Fourth, by "lightening taxation." "By lightening taxation, the people may be made wealthy" (Jin Xin I). Fifth, by educating them after they are wealthy. "Pay careful attention to education in schools, emphasizing the meaning of filial piety and fraternal duty"; "Teach them the human relations: affection between father and son, righteousness between ruler and subject, distinction between husband and wife, order between old and young, and good faith between friends" (Duke Wen of Teng I). Looking back today, these five measures all focused on the people's well-being; if properly implemented, the masses could lead a prosperous and cultivated life. Furthermore, Xunzi’s "Heaven did not produce the people for the sake of the ruler; Heaven established the ruler for the sake of the people" (Da Lüe), and "The ruler is the boat; the common people are the water. The water can carry the boat, and the water can overturn the boat" (Duke Ai); as well as the Great Learning’s "Love what the people love, and hate what the people hate" and "By gaining the people, the state is gained; by losing the people, the state is lost"—all are developments of people-oriented thinking. Guanzi stated, "In the way of governing a country, one must first enrich the people" (Governing the State), and Wenzi noted, "Governing a state has its constants, but benefiting the people is the foundation" (Upper Righteousness). These enriched and expanded the idea of valuing the people, becoming a precious spiritual asset.
The concept of "people as the foundation of the state" is closely and naturally linked to "governing by virtue." During the transition from the Yin (Shang) to the Zhou dynasty, learning from the downfall of the Shang, the Zhou people launched a political reform centered on "questioning Heaven," "revering virtue," and "protecting the people." They realized that the longevity of a dynasty's mandate did not depend on the abundance of sacrificial offerings or the piety of rituals, but on the ruler’s efforts to be "suitable for the people" and to protect their ability to live and work in peace. "Great Heaven has no partial affections; it helps only the virtuous" (The Charge to Cai Zhong) gradually became the foundation of Zhou dynasty ideology. Confucius inherited the Zhou idea of rule by virtue, proposing the governance theories of "governing by virtue" and "leading them by virtue" (Wei Zheng). Mencius integrated Confucius’s core concept of "benevolence" ($rén$) with "rule by virtue," developing it into the theory of "benevolent government" ($rénzhèng$) and people-oriented thought, which had a profound impact.
The political stance of Marxism is the supremacy of the people based on class character. Marxism takes the liberation of the proletariat and all humanity as its mission, the free and well-rounded development of every individual as its goal, and is committed to realizing the fundamental interests of the broadest masses of the people. "If we have chosen the position in life in which we can most of all work for mankind, no burdens can bow us down." Marx devoted his life to the "actual man" and his liberation. As Heinrich Böll said, without Marx, the shopgirl would still be fighting for her eight-hour day, for her free afternoon, perhaps for her free Sunday, and for the right to sit down occasionally during working hours. Engels was also deeply concerned about the condition of the oppressed working class; he spent 21 months directly learning about the aspirations, sufferings, and joys of the British proletariat, noting: "the condition of the working class is the real basis and point of departure of all social movements of the present time because it is the highest and most unconcealed pinnacle of the social misery existing in our day."
The historical materialism of Marx and Engels examines the creators of history based on "actual people" and their essence, placing the masses of the people in a supreme position. Marxism firmly believes that the masses are the subjects of social history and the creators of history. In the process of social and historical development, the masses play a decisive role. The role of the masses in creating history is consistent with the process by which the movement of basic social contradictions drives society forward. In the process of resolving basic social contradictions, the masses are the social force that complies with the requirements of the development of productive forces, the social force that desires to transform old relations of production, and the social force that advocates for the transformation of old social systems and old ideologies. The overall will and actions of the masses represent the direction of historical development, and their social practice ultimately determines the outcome of historical development. The masses are the creators of material and spiritual wealth, the decisive force in social-historical transformation, and the main force in changing reality to create an ideal society.
The above investigation shows that the emphasis, understanding, and care for the people in fine traditional Chinese culture share a high degree of compatibility with the Marxist concern for oppressed classes and peoples in real life, such as child laborers and female workers. There is also a strong consistency in the idea that complying with the will of the people determines the direction of historical development. Undeniably, traditional Chinese people-oriented thought was a "minben" within the framework of monarchy, not democracy in the modern sense. However, under the traditional Chinese political system, dynasties that valued, benefited, and profited the people mostly enjoyed political clarity and prosperous subjects. Conversely, those that treated human lives with contempt and viewed the people as mere weeds had muddled politics and suffering people. Marxist historical materialism, on the other hand, views the masses as the subject that creates history; Mao Zedong expressed this as: "The people, and the people alone, are the motive force in the making of world history." Although the idea of "people as the foundation of the state" differs from the materialist view of history, their value orientations—such as relying on the people, depending on the people, and existing for the people—are interconnected. Sinicized Marxism precisely upholds the materialist view of history, inherits the people-valuing thought of fine traditional Chinese culture, and has proposed the "people-centered" development philosophy and basic strategy. General Secretary Xi Jinping has pointed out: "This country is its people; the people are the country. As the Communist Party of China has led the people in fighting to win and maintain control of the state, it has actually been fighting for the people's support. Governing a state has its constants, but benefiting the people is the foundation. Bringing benefits to the people is the fundamental requirement of 'standing for the public interest and governing for the people.'" This is a vivid manifestation of the integration of the "people as the foundation" thought from fine traditional Chinese culture with the Marxist materialist view of history in the New Era.
(2) The Compatibility of "Common Good for All" and "Upholding Good Faith and Cultivating Harmony" with the Communist Ideal
When paths match, ambitions align. The "Great Unity" ($dàtóng$) [18] thought in fine traditional Chinese culture shares a high degree of compatibility with the lofty ideal of communism. Both "contain a demand for an ideal society and possess a certain isomorphism in the prototype of that society." The Great Unity thought in fine traditional Chinese culture has carried the beautiful aspirations of the Chinese nation for thousands of years. Similar to the communist ideal, it not only conforms to the Chinese nation's consistent longing and pursuit of a better society but also increases the Chinese nation's sense of identification with communism. "When the Great Way ($dàdào$) prevails, the world is shared by all" ($tiān\ xià\ wéi\ gōng$) [19] comes from the "Evolution of Rites" ($Lǐ\ Yùn$) chapter of the Book of Rites and speaks to the pursuit of an ideal society in fine traditional Chinese culture.
"When the Great Way prevails, the world is shared by all. They choose men of talents and virtue; they treat one another with good faith and cultivate harmony. Thus men do not love only their own parents, nor cherish only their own children. Provision is secured for the aged till their death, employment for the able-bodied, and the means of growing up for the young. Compassion is shown to widows, orphans, the childless, and those disabled by disease, so that they are all sufficiently maintained. Each man has his occupation, and each woman her home. They hate to see resources wasted on the ground, yet they do not necessarily keep them for themselves; they hate to see energy not exerted by themselves, yet they do not necessarily exert it for their own benefit. Thus, selfish schemings are repressed and find no development. Robbers, filchers, and rebellious traitors do not exist, and hence the outer doors remain open and are not shut. This is the state of Great Unity." (Book of Rites, Evolution of Rites). In the context of Great Unity thought, human society opposes private ownership and realizes the public ownership of the means of production. Among these, the provision for the aged, the young, and the disabled "being sufficiently maintained" reflects a pursuit of material abundance. The sentiment that "resources are not necessarily kept for oneself" and "energy is not necessarily exerted for one's own benefit" highlights the ideal of the common good—a realm where resources are used to their fullest without becoming private property, and where the people give their all without seeking selfish gain. "Selfish schemings are repressed... and hence the outer doors are not shut" presents the spiritual realm of an ideal society where no one locks their doors at night or picks up items dropped on the road. Such a social ideal has long been the beautiful pursuit of the Chinese nation; in a certain sense, it became the natural soil suitable for cultivating communist thought.
The society of Great Unity also pays special attention to the harmony of social relations, presenting many beautiful scenes such as "good faith and harmony," "mutual watchfulness and assistance," and "everyone in their proper place." The social pursuit of "upholding good faith and cultivating harmony" is the core concept of the Great Unity society, aiming to achieve harmony in social relations, diplomatic relations, and world peace. "Peace, amity, and harmony are concepts the Chinese civilization has inherited for over five thousand years, advocating for the construction of a world where the self and the group are one through moral order, prioritizing others in the relationship between self and world." Regarding the harmony of social relations, Confucius’s ambition that "the aged are given rest, friends are shown good faith, and the young are cared for" (Gong Ye Chang) presents a picture of domestic concord and harmony between the individual and the collective. Mencius also discussed the ideal social picture where "neighbors accompany one another, keep watch for one another, and support one another in sickness, then the people will live in affection and harmony" (Duke Wen of Teng I). As the concentrated expression of the ideal society in fine traditional Chinese culture, the Great Unity ideal—with its vision of "upholding good faith and cultivating harmony... so that the aged have their end, the able-bodied have their use, the young have their growth, and the disabled are maintained"—projects a harmonious scene where people find their places and live in peace and joy. Regarding diplomatic harmony, fine traditional Chinese culture emphasizes that states should "meet one another with benevolence and righteousness" (Gao Zi II). The way neighboring states interact is embodied as: "Only the benevolent can serve the small as the great" and "Only the wise can serve the great as the small" (King Hui of Liang II). Small states should practice benevolent government and love the people, being of one mind with them to defend the country. Large states should practice the "Kingly Way" of benevolence, possessing the moral capacity to manage their great economic and military power. Regarding the realization of peace under Heaven, fine traditional Chinese culture advocates for the "Kingly Way" of benevolent government to avoid war and pursue peace. Confucius explicitly stated: "Duke Huan assembled all the princes nine times, and not by the use of weapons or chariots: it was through the influence of Guan Zhong. Whose benevolence was like his? Whose benevolence was like his?" (Xian Wen). It can be seen that it was precisely because Guan Zhong used diplomatic means to avoid war that Confucius gave him the affirmative evaluation of "Whose benevolence was like his?" Mencius "valued the Kingly Way and disparaged the Hegemonic Way," striving to change the social reality where "the world lacks the Way, the small serve the great, and the weak serve the strong" (Li Lou I) as well as the contention and bullying between states. Instead, he promoted the ideal of the Kingly Way: "When the world possesses the Way, those of small virtue serve those of great virtue, and those of small worth serve those of great worth" (Li Lou I). Xunzi advocated that "righteousness being established, one becomes King" (Kings and Hegemons) and that "polishing one's Way, practicing one's righteousness, promoting the common benefit of the world, and removing the common harm of the world—then the world will turn to him" (Zheng Lun). This also reflects the high regard for the ideal of the Kingly Way: defending benevolence and righteousness so that the world’s hearts return to the center.
The ideal society of Marxism is communist society. "The theory of the Communists may be summed up in the single sentence: Abolition of private property." In a communist society, the means of production will be directly possessed by society, and a community of free and equal laborers will jointly possess and use them. Corresponding to the social ownership of the means of production, communist society organizes and manages production in a planned manner. Since the whole of society owns the means of production, organizes production collectively, and distributes products together, a direct unity is achieved between individual labor and social labor, and between individual interests and social interests. Individual labor directly becomes a part of social labor, and individual interests are realized within social interests. This shares a similar spirit with the ideal of the "Great Unity" (Datong [20]) society: "As for goods, people abhor seeing them wasted on the ground, but they do not necessarily keep them for themselves; as for labor, people abhor not exerting their own strength, but they do not necessarily do so for themselves" (The Book of Rites: The Conveyance of Rites [21]). In the Marxist context, the proletariat completely overthrows all exploitation, oppression, classes, and class antagonisms, establishing a communist system that allows human society to enter the realm of freedom. The realm of freedom carries many beautiful aspirations of the proletariat: "In a higher phase of communist society, after the enslaving subordination of the individual to the division of labor has vanished... only then can society inscribe on its banners: From each according to his ability, to each according to his needs!" In the ideal blueprint of communist society, "the common association of all members of society for the common and planned exploitation of the productive forces; the development of production to a degree where it can satisfy the needs of all; the ending of a situation in which the needs of some are satisfied at the cost of the needs of others; the total liquidation of classes and class antagonisms; the rounded development of the capacities of all members of society through the elimination of the present division of labor, through industrial education, through alternating activities, through universal participation in the enjoyments produced by all, through the fusion of town and country." It is evident that the material dimension of the communist value orientation is a society with highly developed productive forces, a great abundance of products, and the universal public ownership of the means of production. The social dimension of the communist value orientation is reflected in the high degree of harmony in social relations. In a communist society, classes will wither away, and class exploitation and oppression will no longer exist. The state apparatus, as a tool of class oppression, will also wither away; humanity will for the first time exist and develop as a unified society, and the history of various nations and countries will develop into a unified world history. In a communist society, war will no longer exist. Vast resources will be liberated from military activities to benefit the whole of society, and humanity will truly lead a life of peace and tranquility. The spiritual dimension of the communist value orientation is reflected in the conscious service and dedication to others and to society. Realizing the free and comprehensive development of the individual is the fundamental value goal pursued by the Marxist ideal society. "In place of the old bourgeois society, with its classes and class antagonisms, we shall have an association, in which the free development of each is the condition for the free development of all." At that time, people will have broken free from "personal dependence" under the conditions of a natural economy, as well as "material dependence" under the conditions of a commodity economy, achieving the development of "free individuality."
To be sure, the traditional Chinese ideal of a "Great Unity" society possesses a certain utopian character, while the communist ideal reflects the laws of development of human society. Nevertheless, as seen from the above investigation, the demands of the two for an ideal society are compatible; there exists a certain structural isomorphism and natural affinity in their archetypes of an ideal society. Both are rooted in the "presence" of human beings to seek happiness in this world, emphasizing both the development of productive forces and the abundance of material products, while also valuing the harmony of social relations. Both advocate for the avoidance or elimination of war, and both take the realization of a "world for the public" (Gong tianxia [22]) as their social ideal. Regarding human beings themselves, "Marxism grasps the essence of man from the perspective of social relations, and Chinese culture also places the individual within the framework of family, state, and the world (Tianxia); both oppose regarding the individual as an isolated unit." Both pursue a high degree of harmony in social relations and a significant elevation of people's spiritual realm. These commonalities reduce the sense of estrangement and rejection between the two, aligning with the Chinese nation's pursuit of an ideal society. Many Chinese scholars—such as Zhu Qianzhi, Jiang Kanghu, Jing Dingcheng, Cai Hesen, Liang Qichao, Cai Yuanpei, Guo Moruo, Qian Mu, Lü Simian, Dou Zongyi, and Wu Kunru—have, as if by prior agreement, pointed out the consistency between Marxism and the "Great Unity" society. They have discussed the "coincidence," "mutual verification," "connection," "affinity," "interconnectivity," and "certain consistency" between the ideal of the "Great Unity" and the socialist ideal from various perspectives, noting that the ideal of the "Great Unity" was one reason why modern China easily accepted socialism. The compatibility between the Chinese people’s demand for a "Great Unity" society and the ideal society of communism not only constitutes a deep and suitable cultural soil for the spread of Marxism in China in historical fact but will also promote the integration of Marxism and fine traditional Chinese culture at the level of values.
IV. Conclusion
In summary, we have presented the high degree of compatibility between Marxism and fine traditional Chinese culture through "three layers and six dimensions," and explored the internal foundations and prerequisites for the combination of the basic tenets of Marxism with fine traditional Chinese culture. Regarding the "three layers of compatibility," the first layer refers to the compatibility between the cultural genes of fine traditional Chinese culture and the theoretical nature of Marxism; this broadest level of compatibility provides the prerequisite for their combination. The second layer is the compatibility of spiritual temperament, which promotes their spiritual proximity. The third layer is the compatibility of values, which constitutes the deep-seated rationale for their combination. The "six dimensions" refer to the six aspects primarily reflected by the three layers of compatibility. The first layer is mainly reflected in two dimensions: the compatibility between the open and inclusive cultural genes of fine traditional Chinese culture and the open theoretical character of Marxism, and the compatibility between the cultural genes of "abolishing the old and establishing the new" (gegu xinxin [23]) and the developmental theoretical character of Marxism. The second layer is mainly reflected in two dimensions: the commonality in dialectical thinking and the similarity in the spirit of practice between fine traditional Chinese culture and Marxism. The third layer is mainly reflected in the compatibility of views on the masses and views on social ideals. The three layers of compatibility advance step-by-step in logical progression, providing the internal foundation and prerequisite for the combination of the basic tenets of Marxism with fine traditional Chinese culture. This has not only created the century-long process of exploration and practice in combining the two on a factual level but also helps to further promote the integration and penetration of the basic tenets of Marxism and fine traditional Chinese culture in the process of advancing and expanding Chinese-path modernization and building a modern Chinese civilization. It deeper promotes their combination and mutual achievement, allowing the new culture formed through this "combination" to become the cultural form of Chinese-path modernization, writing a new chapter in the Sinicization and modernization of Marxism in the New Era.
(About the authors: Ma Qiuli is a professor and doctoral supervisor at the School of Marxism, Shandong University, and a researcher at the National Governance Research Institute of Shandong University; Zhang Yonghuai is a doctoral student at the School of Marxism, Shandong University.)
Online Editor: Tong Xin Source: Journal of Shandong University (Philosophy and Social Sciences Edition), 2023, No. 6