Liu Yanwu: Mao Zedong's Exploration and Contributions to the Inheritance and Development of Fine Traditional Chinese Culture After the Founding of the People's Republic of China
Xi Jinping has pointed out: "Chinese Communists are Marxists; we adhere to the scientific theories of Marxism, and we persist in and develop socialism with Chinese characteristics. However, Chinese Communists are neither historical nihilists nor cultural nihilists. We have always maintained that the basic tenets of Marxism must be closely integrated with China’s specific realities. We should treat national traditional culture and the cultures of all countries in the world scientifically, arming ourselves with all the excellent intellectual and cultural achievements created by humanity. In the long historical practice of leading the Chinese people through revolution, construction, and reform, Chinese Communists have always been faithful inheritors and promoters of excellent traditional Chinese culture. From Confucius to Sun Yat-sen, we have been careful to absorb their positive nutrients."
This discourse points the way for researching the CPC’s inheritance and development of excellent traditional Chinese culture. Relevant research has either studied Mao Zedong’s historical contributions from the perspective of the "Two Combinations" [1], summarized Mao’s inheritance and development of excellent traditional Chinese culture from a purely theoretical standpoint, or studied Mao’s exploration of integrating the basic tenets of Marxism with excellent traditional Chinese culture through his early classic writings. These works have opened up research space for us to study Mao’s explorations through close textual readings, thereby allowing us to understand this grand theoretical narrative by "seeing the big through the small."
To deeply study our Party’s inheritance and development of excellent traditional Chinese culture during the period of socialist revolution and construction, we take the Chronicle of Mao Zedong (1949–1976) (Volumes 4–9) (hereafter "the Chronicle") as our primary vehicle. This work comprehensively records Mao Zedong's activities during this period, particularly his decision-making processes on major issues, thereby reflecting his thought, theory, and work methods. Through textual analysis, we explore Mao’s discourses, reflections, practices, and contributions regarding excellent traditional Chinese culture within the context of the "Two Combinations"—integrating the basic tenets of Marxism with China’s revolutionary and construction practice, and with excellent traditional Chinese culture. Our goal is to gain a comprehensive and profound understanding of why Chinese Communists have always been the faithful inheritors and promoters of excellent traditional Chinese culture, and to provide insights for inheriting and developing excellent traditional Chinese culture, promoting revolutionary culture, and developing advanced socialist culture in the New Era.
I. Research Methods and Materials
To study Mao Zedong’s discourses, reflections, practices, and unique contributions to excellent traditional Chinese culture after the founding of the People's Republic, we selected records related to excellent traditional Chinese culture in the Chronicle as the object of textual analysis. It should be specifically noted that "culture" as used in this article includes both tangible and intangible cultural heritage. This encompasses various forms of traditional cultural expression passed down through generations by the Chinese people of all ethnic groups and regarded as part of their cultural heritage, as well as the physical objects and sites associated with these expressions. It includes important concepts accumulated by the Chinese people over long-term production and life—such as their outlooks on the universe, the world [2], society, and morality—as well as the various systems and customs that concentrate these concepts. It also includes cultural relics of historical, artistic, and scientific value, specifically "immovable" relics such as ancient sites, tombs, architecture, grotto temples, stone carvings, murals, and important modern historical sites and representative buildings, as well as "movable" relics such as important physical objects, artworks, documents, manuscripts, and library materials from various historical eras.
Textual analysis is a qualitative research method. It is "an activity that uses various data collection methods in a natural setting to conduct a holistic investigation of social phenomena, primarily using inductive methods to analyze data and form theories, and obtaining interpretive understanding of behavior and meaning construction through interaction with the research subject." By examining and interpreting data, one discovers concepts, establishes theories, gains understanding, and contributes knowledge. The basic logic of this study involves several aspects. First, generating a theoretical framework from the data. This is an inductive process of continuous bottom-up condensation, integrating different concepts and viewpoints into a whole. Second, remaining theoretically sensitive. Researchers should remain sensitive to existing theories, previous theories, and theories emerging from the data, capturing clues for constructing new theories. Third, constant comparison. Comparisons must be made between different sets of data and between theories to extract relevant categories and attributes. Fourth, theoretical sampling. This involves selecting data, establishing initial codes, focused coding, and finally theoretical coding. Fifth, flexible use of literature. Relevant literature can broaden research horizons, but one must avoid over-reliance on previous theories—fitting the clothes to the body rather than "cutting the feet to fit the shoes" [3]. Sixth, theoretical evaluation. Checking and evaluating the abstracted concepts and theories.
After a careful review of the texts regarding Mao Zedong’s discourses, reflections, and practices concerning excellent traditional Chinese culture between 1949 and 1976—and after filtering out data related to errors already determined by the Resolution on Certain Questions in the History of Our Party since the Founding of the People’s Republic of China—a total of 289 entries were compiled. In terms of content, these include: 24 entries on reflections regarding the "Two Combinations" (the theoretical background for the inheritance and development of excellent traditional Chinese culture); 62 entries on policies for inheritance/development and related arts and literature policies; 29 entries on the transformation of traditional culture (including the transformation of intellectuals); 28 entries on key fields of inheritance and development; 43 entries on traditional cultural literacy; 61 entries on critiques of traditional culture; and 42 entries on the practice of excellent traditional culture. In terms of form, these include speeches, talks, letters, telegrams, comments, instructions, addresses, inscriptions, visits, and inspections. In terms of setting, 261 entries occurred in domestic settings and 28 in foreign affairs settings; the latter includes comparisons between Chinese and Western cultures and high praise for traditional handicrafts, which pioneered the tradition of our Party leaders discussing cultural confidence through cross-cultural comparison and emphasizing the protection of the nation’s intangible cultural heritage. Chronologically, there are 67 entries from the socialist transformation period (1949–1956), 137 from the early period of socialist construction (1957–1965), and 85 from the "Cultural Revolution" and its adjustment period (1966–1976). (The specific number of entries per year is shown in the figure below).
Figure: Number of entries related to excellent traditional Chinese culture in the Chronicle of Mao Zedong (1949–1976) (Data source: Compiled based on the Chronicle of Mao Zedong, Vols. 4–9)
These 289 records—from the first entry on January 16, 1949, in the form of a telegram requesting the protection of cultural monuments during combat, to the 289th entry on August 26, 1976, requesting Hong Mai’s Rongzhai Suibi [4] from the Song Dynasty—fully demonstrate that throughout his life, Mao Zedong was always a faithful inheritor and promoter of excellent traditional Chinese culture.
II. Coding Methods
To abstract theory from data, the most critical step is the step-by-step coding of materials, which involves three stages.
(1) Initial Coding Initial coding is the first step in grounded theory modeling, expanding outward from the text. This article codes the 289 texts in chronological order, identified by the letter "M." To ensure comprehensiveness, accuracy, and scientific rigor, the 289 texts were read closely word-for-word and paragraph-for-paragraph. The analysis focused on the theoretical background of the "Two Combinations," inheritance/development policies, the transformation of traditional culture and the intellectual workforce, key areas of focus (such as opera and Traditional Chinese Medicine), and Mao’s mastery, evaluation, and application of traditional culture (ancient philosophy, history, literature, and key figures). Without omitting any valuable phrases, the core ideas and key meanings were captured, and the discourses were condensed, refined, and summarized while retaining basic viewpoints, resulting in 289 initial codes (M1, M2, ... M289).
Take entry 97 as an example. On the morning of June 29, 1958, at his residence by the Zhongnanhai swimming pool, Mao Zedong presided over a meeting of the presidium members and group leaders of the Enlarged Meeting of the CPC Central Military Commission. Mao said: "In learning the technical experience of the Soviet Army, we must also use a developmental perspective. Most importantly, learning advanced Soviet experience must be combined with our own originality, and the universal truths of Marxism-Leninism must be combined with the practice of the Chinese revolution. We cannot just eat 'ready-made meals' [5]; eating ready-made meals leads to losing battles. Some people in ancient China, like Li Shimin and Cao Cao, were good at fighting; China did have some things [of value] in the past." The initial code was: Learning advanced foreign experience must be combined with originality and with excellent traditional Chinese culture (M97).
As another example, entry 143: on the evening of December 24, 1960, Mao Zedong met with a Cuban women's delegation and an Ecuadorian cultural delegation in the Yinian Hall of Zhongnanhai. When a guest raised a question about utilizing China’s cultural heritage, Mao said: "Regarding China’s cultural heritage, we should utilize it fully and utilize it critically. China's several thousand years of culture is primarily the culture of the feudal era... we should be good at analyzing it, and we should utilize feudal culture critically rather than unthinkingly. Of course, anti-feudal culture is better than feudal culture, but that too must be utilized with criticism and distinction." The initial code was: China’s cultural heritage must be utilized critically and with distinction (M143).
(2) Focused Coding Focused coding is the second stage. These codes are more directional, selective, and conceptual than initial codes, allowing for clearer categorization, identified by the letter "J." To ensure accuracy and facilitate the abstraction of theory, the initial codes were revised and perfected against the original texts to form 289 focused codes (J1, J2 ... J289).
For example, entry 34 records a conversation on February 19, 1953, with Li Xuefeng, Li Xiannian, and others. Discussing "national forms" [6], Mao said: "Those two houses you built at East Lake look like tortoise shells; what is so good-looking about them? Backward things must be phased out gradually. Wooden boats are a national form; should we not replace them with steamships? Why do the people dislike old latrines and want flush toilets? Which of these—airplanes, cars, tanks—is a 'national form'? This is to say, we must promote progress and oppose conservatism and backwardness. Western-style buildings are better than small single-story houses." The initial code was "opposing backward national forms" (M34), while the focused code was: Traditional cultural forms must undergo innovative development (J34).
Another example is entry 259: on October 13, 1974, upon arriving in Changsha, Mao listened to staff members read news from the People's Daily regarding the discovery of a cache of lost ancient books at the Mawangdui Han Tomb No. 3, as well as bamboo slips, silk paintings, and other precious relics from Tombs No. 2 and No. 3. Mao said: "They have done a great thing; digging up so many treasures is extraordinary! The history of the Chinese nation is extraordinary!" Initial code: Feeling proud of the precious relics unearthed in Changsha (M259); focused code: Feeling confident in excellent traditional Chinese culture (J259).
(3) Theoretical Coding Theoretical coding is the process of further summarizing and abstracting focused codes to gradually form a theory. Based on seven major modules—the "Two Combinations" theoretical background (T), inheritance/development and related policies (Z), transformation of old culture/intellectuals (F), key investment areas (Y), traditional cultural literacy (G), traditional cultural critiques (P), and excellent traditional culture practice (D)—the focused codes underwent a comprehensive deep-scan analysis and were categorized to give them distinct theoretical value. Examples of the step-by-step coding are shown in the table below.
(4) Theoretical Saturation Test Through comparative coding analysis, no new concepts or categories were identified when re-examining the Chronicle texts. Therefore, the conceptualization and categorization of this coding can be considered relatively saturated, capable of comprehensively presenting the main concepts and core elements of Mao Zedong’s explorations in inheriting and developing excellent traditional Chinese culture after the founding of New China.
III. Findings from Textual Analysis
Through the coding and analysis of the texts, this study argues that the Chinese Communists, with Comrade Mao Zedong as their chief representative, conducted preliminary explorations into the inheritance and development of excellent traditional Chinese culture within the context of socialist revolution and construction, making unique contributions to its inheritance and promotion.
(1) Formulating and implementing policies of "Letting a hundred flowers bloom," "Weeding through the old to let the new grow," "Making the past serve the present," and "Making foreign things serve China"
In 1951, Mao Zedong wrote an inscription for the China Academy of Traditional Chinese Opera: "Let a hundred flowers bloom; weed through the old to bring forth the new" [7]. This pointed the way forward for the prosperity of literary and artistic undertakings in the New China. Regarding how to "weed through the old to bring forth the new," Mao once offered this explanation: "What should be brought forth? The 'old' refers to feudal and capitalist things. We must push out feudal and capitalist elements and bring forth socialist elements—that is, we must advocate for new forms. Old forms must carry new content, and the forms themselves must undergo some changes" (M170).
Mao Zedong believed that China's cultural heritage should be fully utilized, but utilized critically (M143). He held that China's millennia of culture was primarily the culture of the feudal era, and that "there are many toxins and dross within the cultural heritage." One must both accept and discard, trusting in the people's power of discernment (Z29). From the perspective of cultural content, traditional ideological concepts had to be criticized and transformed into a new socialist culture before they could be inherited and developed. "The works of ancients and foreigners must also be studied; to refuse to study them is an error. However, they must be studied with a critical eye, ensuring that the past serves the present and the foreign serves China" [8] (Z48). From the perspective of cultural form, a differentiated approach was required. On one hand, proceeding from the "people-centered nature" of literature and art, Mao emphasized that culture must possess national forms that the masses "love to see and hear" [9]. He posited: "Art involves a question of national form. Art cannot be separated from the habits, feelings, and even the language of the people, nor from the historical development of the nation" (Z25). On the other hand, backward or conservative national forms required transformation: "Antiques must certainly be protected, but we have a greater need for modern science and culture" (Z26); "I love a progressive China, not a backward China" (Z16). This reflected the original aspiration of Communists in the early years of the New China to not only focus on destroying an old world but also on building a new one.
In terms of concrete implementation, regarding tangible cultural heritage, Chinese Communists paid great attention to the protection of various cultural relics at every turn. During the latter stages of the War of Liberation, Mao issued orders via telegrams and proclamations to protect historical sites and cultural landmarks during military operations (Z1), as well as cultural and educational institutions (Z2). He maintained that national construction must also attend to the protection of cultural sites (Z19). Even during the "Cultural Revolution," the CPC Central Committee issued "Several Opinions on Protecting Cultural Relics and Books during the Proletarian Cultural Revolution" (Z51). "As for historical sites, it is not the case that we want none of them. All those that can be preserved should be preserved" (Z30). Mao was especially protective of precious physical objects; in 1952, he issued instructions to remount the scroll painting Along the River During the Qingming Festival (清明上河图), gifted by a friend, to prevent insect damage and mildew (Z8). Mao also focused on the role of public cultural service institutions in inheriting and protecting fine traditional culture, valuing the educational and cognitive functions of museums for the masses. In 1953, he proposed establishing a revolutionary history museum for the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom [10], considering it highly significant (Z17). In 1958, after visiting the Anhui Provincial Museum, he noted: "Every major city in every province should have a museum like this; the people need to recognize their own history and creative power" (Z32). From the perspective of protecting intangible cultural heritage, as early as 1960 during a meeting with Edgar Snow, Mao praised the carving and other handicraft skills of Chinese artisans (Z36), demonstrating his foresight and insight regarding the protection of intangible heritage.
(2) Establishing the Guiding Position of Marxism in Ideology through the Transformation of Traditional Culture
The transformation of traditional culture first involved the reform of old-style education to make it part of socialist culture. Shortly after the founding of the New China, Mao Zedong said: "At present, the progressive forces in the fields of culture and education are still small; the strength of Marxism-Leninism is much smaller than that of capitalism. Old-style schools are capitalist; our new-style schools must be built as socialist... Educational reform must be well-coordinated with the transformation of society as a whole" (F2). In Mao’s view, "education for thousands of years was indeed a tool in the hands of the exploiting classes, whereas socialist education is a tool in the hands of the working class" (F27).
Secondly, the ideological transformation of intellectuals was carried out. The focus of cultural construction lies in people. Intellectuals in old China were few, representing only a small proportion of the national population. After the founding of the New China, the Party attached great importance to the work of uniting, educating, and transforming intellectuals, enabling the vast majority of them to continue their work in science, education, and culture, utilizing their expertise to serve the people and the construction of the New China.
In October 1951, at the Third Session of the First National Committee of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC), Mao Zedong pointed out: "Ideological transformation, first and foremost the ideological transformation of various types of intellectuals, is one of the important conditions for the thorough realization of democratic reforms and the gradual implementation of industrialization in our country." He noted that the ideological transformation activities carried out on the cultural and educational fronts and among intellectuals were a movement of self-education and self-transformation (F9). "Our task is, on the basis of intellectuals' voluntary study, to kindly help them learn through appropriate means, rather than using coercive methods to force them to learn" (F19). Although practices in some areas were crude, and some units adopted methods of "mass struggle" to solve ideological problems—even raising issues to a sharp political level such that the critiques became overly one-sided or categorical—these historical lessons deserve profound reflection. However, generally speaking, helping the majority of intellectuals from the old society to clear away the residual influences of imperialism and the feudal-comprador class [11], master basic Marxist knowledge, and advance from a nationalist and patriotic stance to a people's stance was necessary at the time and aligned with the requirements of national construction. After their transformation, "the vast majority of them have already become state workers, have served socialism, and are already part of the working class" (F17). Guided by the fundamental policy that "literature and art serve the people, and first of all serve the workers, peasants, and soldiers," a vast number of literary and art workers immersed themselves in social life and actual struggles. By reforming old literature and art—absorbing the essence and discarding the dross—they inherited and developed the fine traditions of national culture and created a batch of excellent works that were loved and welcomed by the masses.
Thirdly, during the transformation of traditional culture, the Party conducted struggles in the ideological field to propagate materialist thought and critique bourgeois idealist thought. For instance, the critical discussion regarding the study of Dream of the Red Chamber [12] was expanded to other departments to thoroughly critique the influence of bourgeois idealism in philosophy, history, education, and linguistics, thereby establishing and consolidating the leadership of Marxist thought across China's entire academic community (M50).
Finally, in terms of institutions, the old was discarded and the new established. A series of old social systems were abolished, and a series of new systems were successively established in their place. Land reform abolished the feudal system of land ownership characterized by landlord exploitation, leading to an unprecedented surge in the production enthusiasm of the peasantry. Through democratic reforms in state-owned industrial and mining enterprises, a democratic management system suited to production needs was preliminarily established. The feudal marriage system was abolished and the new Marriage Law was promulgated, gradually establishing moral concepts such as equality between men and women and freedom of marriage (F1). Chronic social maladies inherited from the old society, such as prostitution, drug trafficking, and gambling houses, were uprooted. Script reform and the literacy movement greatly promoted cultural development in urban and rural areas (F14). Mao Zedong argued: "When the old system no longer works, a new system must rise to take its place. Productive forces must always develop forward, coming into conflict with the relations of production, which drives society to advance continuously" (F16). The vitality released by these institutional changes unleashed the pride of the people of the young Republic as masters of their own house, constantly calling forth the courage for socialist construction to "dare to command the sun and moon to bring a new day" [13].
(3) Inheriting and Developing Fine Traditional Chinese Culture in Key Fields
The Chronicle [14] contains 21 and 7 records respectively regarding the critical utilization of traditional opera and Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) as historical and cultural heritage.
Regarding the inheritance and development of traditional opera, Mao Zedong's most important instruction was "let a hundred flowers bloom; weed through the old to bring forth the new" (Z6). Guided by the spirit of his "Talks at the Yan'an Forum on Literature and Art," the Liberated Areas had produced a large number of dramatic works that reflected real life and were popular with the masses, such as the yangko opera Brother and Sister Clearing the Wasteland, the rearranged Pingju opera Driven to Join the Liangshan Rebels, and the new opera The White-Haired Girl. Continuing this vigorous cultural movement, after the founding of the New China, Mao always placed great importance on the reform and promotion of traditional opera. He posited: "Those who promote the improvement of drama are often laymen—the audience" (Y6). Mao’s overall assessment of traditional opera in the early 1960s was that "harmful plays are few, good plays are also few; the ends are small and the middle is large [15]. Emperors, kings, generals, ministers, scholars, and beauties [16] have increased, and the 'West Wind' is somewhat prevailing over the 'East Wind'" (Y15). Mao was very dissatisfied with this. In November 1963, he criticized Drama Gazette (戏剧报) and the Ministry of Culture twice in succession, pointing out: "For a period, Drama Gazette has done nothing but promote monsters and demons [17]. The Ministry of Culture does not care about culture; there are many feudal things about emperors, generals, ministers, scholars, and beauties... in the cultural sphere, especially in drama, there is a large amount of feudal and backward material, and very little that is socialist" (Y16). Mao proposed that troupes and repertoires must be reformed (Y15). He also paid particular attention to the reform of Peking Opera, watching modern Peking Operas many times and offering evaluations, and affirming Peng Zhen's speech at the modern Peking Opera festival. Peng Zhen spoke on two issues: first, Peking Opera must be reformed in terms of its intended audience, the subjects of performance, and the unification of ideological content and artistic style; second, for the reform of Peking Opera to succeed, there must be two prerequisites: the writers, directors, and actors must go deep among the workers, peasants, and soldiers, becoming one with them and establishing "flesh-and-blood ties"; and the thinking of Peking Opera workers must be revolutionized (Y18). Mao also valued the reform of local operas. When hearing feedback from actors that the current reform of Yue opera had made it "neither Peking nor Yue" and that the operas no longer seemed like operas, Mao said: "Each local opera genre must have its own characteristics; otherwise, why have so many local operas?" (Y25). According to the Chronicle, during his inspection tours, Mao also watched Sichuan opera, Huagu opera, Henan opera, Yue opera, Wuju opera, Shao opera, Kunqu opera, and various other local genres.
Regarding the inheritance and development of TCM, the first step is to recognize its importance. In 1953, Mao Zedong said: "If China has anything to contribute to the world, I believe TCM is one such thing" (Y1). He instructed that the issue of TCM was actually a matter of medical care for 470 million peasants and a portion of urban residents (Y2). He also pointed out: "The issue of TCM is not just a matter of curing a few people, but a matter of cultural heritage. We must elevate TCM to the level of making a contribution to the whole world." He argued for a change in ideological style to respect the long history of China’s cultural heritage; only by respecting TCM can one truly learn it (Y3). Secondly, a critical stance must be adopted. TCM, after all, emerged on the basis of agriculture and handicrafts; this heritage must be accepted critically, absorbing and developing its positive aspects to make it scientific, while researching and analyzing its irrational aspects with a critical eye (Y1). Mao also instructed: We should critically accept this part of our cultural heritage, discarding the dross and preserving the essence, adding its rational parts to medical science to better serve the prevention and treatment of diseases and the improvement of people's health (Y2). Thirdly, Western and Chinese medicine must be united; it is harmful for them to look down on one another, and sectarianism must be broken. It is good for TCM practitioners to learn some Western medicine (Y1), and Western medicine practitioners must also learn from TCM (Y3). To master TCM and Chinese pharmacology, Western medicine practitioners must participate, and experienced TCM practitioners must also be recruited; relying on one side alone is insufficient. Having Western medicine without TCM will not work, and having TCM without Western medicine will not work. Uniting Chinese and Western medicine is one of the guiding principles of health work (Y4). Continuing to correct the mistaken views that despise and exclude TCM remains a very important task for the health department (Y10). Finally, research institutions must be established. Without respect and learning, there can be no talk of research. Without research, there can be no improvement (Y3). Books on TCM and Chinese pharmacology must be published, and China’s own new medicine and new pharmacology must be established (Y4). The experience of Chinese medicine is very rich, with a history of thousands of years; comrades must go and organize it (Y5). Chinese medicine and pharmacology are a "great treasure house" and efforts should be made to explore them and improve them (Y8). The Party's policy on TCM is an important guiding principle in China's health work. An increasing number of cases have confirmed the significant role that TCM and Chinese pharmacology play in the cause of people's health.
(4) Enhancing the Cultivation of Traditional Culture is the Prerequisite for Inheriting and Developing Fine Traditional Chinese Culture
In order to inherit and develop fine traditional Chinese culture, one must have a firm grasp and understanding of it so as to proceed with full confidence. Therefore, self-cultivation in fine traditional culture is of exceptional importance. Mao Zedong possessed a profound grounding in classical culture and always cherished fine traditional Chinese culture; even on his deathbed, he was still borrowing and reading Rongzhai Suibi [18]. During his inspection tours across the country, Mao would seek to understand the local customs, history, and geography of every place he visited. For example, during his 1952 inspection of Zhengzhou, he pointed out that the Yellow River was both the cradle that nurtured the Chinese nation and a "harmful river" that endangered the people due to years of warfare in old China and indiscriminate deforestation in its upper reaches. To properly harness the Yellow River, he spent late nights consulting the Henan General Gazetteer, the Gazetteer of Bianjing, and the Longmen Twenty Beitie [19] to understand the history of the river's flooding. Around the time of the 1958 Chengdu Conference, Mao gave instructions to have the couplets from the Wuhou Shrine [20] transcribed and sent to him. He also issued a written instruction to select a number of poems written by people of the Tang and Song dynasties concerning Sichuan, as well as several poems by people of the Ming dynasty concerning Sichuan, to be printed and distributed at the Chengdu Conference. In 1970, when Li Desheng was reassigned as Commander of the Beijing Military Region, Mao instructed him that to serve in this role, he must understand the history and geography of Beijing and North China, advising him to read Gu Zuyu’s Essentials of Historical Geography [21]. Mao not only read extensively himself but also recommended ancient texts to other leaders. In 1959, he recommended the "Biography of Hai Rui" from the History of Ming to Peng Dehuai and Zhou Enlai; in 1963, he sent "The Annals of Xiang Yu" from the Records of the Grand Historian for comrades to read; and in 1972, when Japanese Prime Minister Kakuei Tanaka visited, Mao gave him the Collected Annotations on the Songs of Chu [22] as a gift.
One must evaluate traditional culture using scientific standards. The Chronicle [23] records as many as 61 instances of Mao Zedong’s evaluations of ancient Chinese philosophy, history, literary works and their authors, and important historical figures. Throughout, he persisted in using people-centeredness, historicity, contemporaneousness, and Sino-Western comparison as standards for evaluating traditional culture.
Evaluating traditional culture through people-centeredness. When evaluating Chinese history and historical figures, people-centeredness is an important yardstick; the core lies in analyzing whether they represented the fundamental interests of the people and whether they promoted social progress. "The culture of China over several millennia is primarily the culture of the feudal era, but it is not entirely composed of feudalist elements; there are elements of the people and elements of anti-feudalism... Anti-feudal culture cannot be utilized entirely without criticism either. Folk works from the feudal era also more or less carry the influence of the feudal ruling class." With such a dialectical perspective, Mao Zedong appeared particularly fair when evaluating the history of Chinese education: "The history of Chinese education has its people-centered side. Confucius's 'education for all without discrimination' [24], Mencius's 'the people are precious and the sovereign is light,' Xunzi's 'humanity triumphs over heaven,' Qu Yuan's criticism of the monarch's vices, Sima Qian's praise of resistance... these should all be mentioned when discussing the history of Chinese education. However, regarding the primary aspect of educational history, the education of several millennia was indeed a tool in the hands of the exploiting classes."
Evaluating traditional culture through historicity. Discussing how to evaluate China’s millennia of culture, Mao Zedong said: "One must distinguish between feudalist elements and non-feudalist elements. Even feudalist elements are not entirely bad. We must pay attention to distinguishing elements from different periods—the emergence, development, and decline of feudalism. When feudalism was still in its stages of emergence and development, many of its elements were quite good." To evaluate major historical events and figures using historical materialism is to judge them within the historical conditions of their own era and society. Whether they conformed to the general trend of historical development and whether they had a far-reaching impact on the future are important yardsticks for measuring the success or failure of historical events and figures. Mao Zedong once used a qilü [25] poem to evaluate Qin Shihuang: "I advise you to scold Qin Shihuang less / The matter of the burning and burying requires discussion / The First Emperor's soul is dead but his Qin remains / While Confucianism's high reputation is but husks and chaff / Since then, a hundred generations have followed the Qin political system / 'Ten Critiques' is not a good essay / Read carefully the Tang writer's 'On Feudalism' / Do not return from Zihou to King Wen" [26]. Qin Shihuang was the first person to unify China; "standardizing the wheel track of carriages and the written script" and "unifying weights and measures" were all major events that conformed to the requirements of historical development. Mao Zedong stated: "Evaluating Qin Shihuang as a historical figure requires the principle of 'one dividing into two.' He played a progressive role in the process of historical development and should be affirmed. However, after unifying the six states, he lost his enterprising spirit, became complacent, indulged in pleasure, sought immortals, built palaces, cruelly oppressed the people, and wandered everywhere, wasting time—it was quite pointless. Chen Sheng and Wu Guang’s uprising against the tyranny of Qin was entirely just." Such an evaluation is more objective and fair.
Evaluating traditional culture through contemporaneousness. When evaluating past history and figures, Mao Zedong often measured them against the standards of our own era, centered on our own needs. As per Mao’s definition of culture: "A given culture (as an ideological form) is a reflection of the politics and economy of a given society, and in turn exerts a tremendous influence and effect upon that politics and economy." Only those elements of traditional culture that adapt to modern values and meet modern needs are worthy of inheritance and development. "We do not worship Genghis Khan. We do not worship Qin Shihuang, Emperor Wu of Han, Emperor Taizong of Tang, or Emperor Taizu of Song, nor do we worship Confucius. We only worship Sun Yat-sen, for his merit in leading the Xinhai Revolution." "In Chinese history, the one who truly did something was Qin Shihuang... though he only ruled for thirteen years, his influence has lasted thousands." "Lu Xun is China's first saint." From this, we can see that promoting revolution, facilitating social progress, and developing new culture were Mao Zedong’s key terms for judging historical figures. Mao’s evaluation of traditional culture demonstrates a great leader's unique perspective on the grand scheme of history.
Evaluating traditional culture through Sino-Western comparison. In 1964, while meeting with the New Zealand friend Wilcox and his wife, Mao Zedong expounded on how Eastern and Western philosophy developed through struggle: "Truth is scolded out of error, materialism is scolded out of idealism, and dialectics is scolded out of metaphysics. It has been this way since ancient times; all develop through struggle. The development of ancient philosophy can be traced from ancient Greece; in China, it began from the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods." In 1965, while meeting the delegation of the Communist Party of Indonesia led by Chairman Aidit, Mao spoke about how Eastern and Western understandings of the relationship between humans and gods shared similarities—gods are reflections of human consciousness: "China has gods everywhere. The organization of gods is always established according to the organization of humans. Humans have emperors, so heaven has an emperor; humans have civil officials, so heaven has civil officials; humans have military officers for fighting, so heaven has celestial soldiers and generals—all are made according to the human model. The German philosopher and materialist Feuerbach was the first to see through the fact that gods are reflections of human consciousness." In 1973, while meeting Egyptian Vice President Shafi, after inquiring in detail about Egyptian history, Mao discussed Chinese history and gave a positive evaluation of Qin Shihuang: "In the past, we were called 'Chin,' plus an 'A' it becomes 'China.' Qin Shihuang is famous in China; he was the first emperor... Qin Shihuang was the first to unify China, unify the script, build broad roads, and implement a centralized system rather than 'states within a state,' with the central government dispatching people to various localities for terms of a few years, rather than using a hereditary system." Mao Zedong engaged in critical thinking through multi-dimensional perspectives, constructing the historical self-confidence of the Chinese people through comparative and reverse thinking.
(5) Personally practicing the inheritance and development of fine traditional culture
Mao Zedong had deep cultural literacy, using classical allusions with ease to simplify a complex international situation, to find modern resonance in ancient precedents, and to make profound matters simple and easy to understand. The Chronicle records 42 instances of utilizing allusions, which can be roughly categorized as follows:
First, using allusions to comment on the international situation, making it clear and bright rather than "looking at flowers through a fog." In December 1961, Mao Zedong used a line from the opera The Romance of the Western Chamber—"I have always bullied the hard and feared the soft, performing the bitter and resigning the sweet"—to clarify the necessary attitude Chinese Communists should adopt toward the "bully the soft and fear the hard" behavior of international imperialism and revisionism. In 1963, he used Wang Xifeng's words from Dream of the Red Chamber, "The big have the difficulties of the big," to pinpoint the situation of the Soviet Union and the United States. In November 1973, Mao used the proverb "A canopy stretched for a thousand miles must still see the end of the banquet" as a metaphor for the relationship between the USSR and the USA.
Second, using allusions to comment on contemporary affairs to achieve the purpose of "using the past to illustrate the present." In 1958, at an enlarged meeting of the CPC Central Committee Political Bureau, Mao warned leading comrades not to be too burdened by "official airs" (官气 gūanqì) and to appear in the posture of a laborer, rather than emulating the feudal style where "when the imperial inspector leaves the court, the earth shakes and the mountains sway." In the same year, during his third speech at the Second Session of the Eighth National Congress of the CPC, he utilized the "three strengths of a historian" (talent, learning, and discernment) proposed by Liu Zhiji of the Tang dynasty—explaining that "discernment" means the ability to recognize the direction of the wind—to specifically remind comrades that they should possess the ability to identify political trends, stressing that improving this discernment was of extreme importance. Mao Zedong also used the story of Guo Jia, an advisor to Cao Cao during the Three Kingdoms period, who criticized Yuan Shao for being "prolix but lacking the essentials, having many plans but being indecisive, slow to see things and slow to act," to tell local Party secretaries that they must be "resourceful and decisive" in their methods. He used the story of Duke Mu of Qin during the Spring and Autumn period, who, after the defeat of General Meng Ming in the invasion of Zheng, took responsibility himself and continued to place him in an important position, eventually leading to victory in the war against Jin. Mao used this to remind leaders: the leader taking responsibility for those being led is a very important condition for gaining the trust of subordinates.
Third, using allusions to comment on profound matters, making them simple and accessible. Regarding strategy, to warn leading comrades at all levels against the pride that might arise from a favorable situation, Mao Zedong instructed in 1973: we should adapt the strategy proposed by Zhu Sheng to Zhu Yuanzhang before the founding of the Ming dynasty—"Build high walls, store grain everywhere, and be slow to claim kingship"—and proposed the slogan: "Dig deep tunnels, store grain everywhere, and never seek hegemony." This adaptation made the great strategic policy of "Be prepared against war, be prepared against natural disasters, and do everything for the people" more concrete. Regarding tactics, in 1963, Mao used the old saying, "If you have ten times the enemy's strength, surround them; if five times, attack," to analyze the self-defensive counter-attack on the eastern sector of the Sino-Indian border: "If it is a siege, ten times the forces are needed; if it is a field battle, five times are needed. In specific tactical movements, it is even more than that—one must have absolute superiority." Through Mao’s use of such allusions, major strategic and tactical issues became accessible and vivid.
Furthermore, in the practice of inheriting and developing fine traditional Chinese culture, Mao Zedong’s calligraphy was also a unique masterpiece—grand and vigorous, with a rigorous layout. His brushwork was both powerful and transcendent, reflecting his broad mind and extraordinary romantic passion. The "Mao-style" script has become a unique phenomenon in modern Chinese calligraphic art. In 1961, Mao Zedong wrote four lines from Li Bai’s poem "A Song of Mount Lu: Sent to Internal Minister Lu Xuzhou"—"Climbing high, one sees the grandeur between heaven and earth / The great river flows on and on, never to return / Yellow clouds for ten thousand miles stir the wind / White waves in nine paths flow like snowy mountains"—to present to the Party Committee of the Mount Lu Administration. In 1963, he also wrote a scroll of Cao Cao's poem "Though the Tortoise Lives Long" to present to the former Japanese Prime Minister Tanzan Ishibashi.
IV. Conclusion and Discussion
Through in-depth study of the Chronicle, this article has obtained Mao Zedong’s discourses, reflections, and practices regarding the inheritance and development of fine traditional Chinese culture. Through extensive, intensive, and repeated reading—moving from primary coding to focused coding and then to theoretical coding—this study has continuously synthesized, abstracted, and grasped the material through holistic and systematic thinking. Referencing works such as One Hundred Years of the Communist Party of China (Period of Socialist Revolution and Construction), A Brief History of CPC Propaganda Work, and A History of CPC Cultural Thought, the research horizons were broadened. I constantly questioned myself, listening to the voice of the text, reflecting on how, while humans are situated within culture and their words and deeds are naturally influenced by cultural concepts and institutions, humans also transform and build culture to ensure its inheritance and development. I reflected on the persistent difficulty faced by Party leaders, as pointed out by Marx, that people do not make history as they please: "Men make their own history, but they do not make it as they please; they do not make it under self-selected circumstances, but under circumstances existing already, given and transmitted from the past." I reflected on the international and domestic situations and cultural environments faced by the Chinese Communists, with Comrade Mao Zedong as their chief representative, in inheriting and developing fine traditional Chinese culture, as well as the periodic characteristics of the Party’s cognitive understanding of cultural laws throughout its hundred-year history.
The preliminary exploration of inheriting and developing fine traditional Chinese culture by the Chinese Communists, with Comrade Mao Zedong as their chief representative, unfolded against the historical backdrop of the period of socialist revolution and construction. It also provided for the present...
The theory of the "Two Combinations" [27] provides the most distinct footnote to this history. The Chinese communists, with Comrade Mao Zedong as their chief representative, formulated and implemented policies such as "letting a hundred flowers bloom," "weeding through the old to bring forth the new," "making the past serve the present," and "making foreign things serve China" during their practical explorations in combining the basic tenets of Marxism with China’s specific realities and with China's excellent traditional culture. Under these policies, a large number of historic sites and cultural relics were protected, and old cultural forms and systems were reformed. Intellectuals from the old society were transformed into part of the working class. Through the critique of idealism and the study of materialism, Marxism gradually came to occupy a dominant position in the ideological sphere. The inheritance and development of key cultural heritage fields, such as traditional opera and Chinese medicine, were successfully advanced. Excellent traditional culture was allowed to "weed through the old to bring forth the new" and "make the past serve the present" in order to serve the people and socialist construction. In particular, theoretical innovations such as the "Double Hundred" policy [28] were achieved, which continue to exert important influence at the current stage.
Of course, in the early years of the New Era, the Party faced the unprecedented feat of consolidating the newborn people's democratic regime, completing the socialist transformation, and carrying out socialist construction at home. Internationally, it faced the severe tasks of resisting the pressure of imperialism and revisionism [29] and actively striving for a peaceful international environment. Furthermore, regarding the laws of socialist construction—especially the laws of socialist cultural construction—the Party still faced "many realms of necessity that had not yet been recognized" and possessed a "great deal of blindness." There was excessive interference in literary and artistic work, and the inherent laws of cultural development were neglected. Deng Xiaoping later pointed out: "Literature and art, as a complex form of mental labor, find it very necessary for artists to exercise their individual creative spirit. What to write and how to write it can only be explored and gradually resolved by artists through artistic practice. In this regard, there should be no arbitrary interference." It can be seen that "the cultural thought of the Communist Party of China manifested a state of oscillation between correcting 'Left' errors and the continuous strengthening of 'Left' cognitions." This was especially true regarding the historical complexity shown in the treatment of cultural heritage. Consequently, literary and artistic policies such as the "Double Hundred" policy, "weeding through the old to bring forth the new," and "making the past serve the present" were not well-executed, or some policies became distorted during stormy, campaign-style implementations. Certain gaps emerged between ideal and reality, and between policy and practice, regarding the inheritance and development of excellent traditional Chinese culture. While the material forms of excellent traditional culture, such as cultural relics and historical sites, were relatively well-protected, there was an excess of negation and critique regarding its conceptual forms. This also aligns with the research conclusions of scholars regarding the developmental stages of the CPC's treatment of traditional culture—evolving from negation and critique to rational viewing, and finally to high appraisal.
However, as One Hundred Years of the Communist Party of China (Socialist Revolution and Construction Period) points out, "Mao Zedong's errors were, after all, errors committed by a great proletarian revolutionary." Xi Jinping has also noted: "Revolutionary leaders are human beings, not gods. Although they possess high theoretical levels, rich experience in struggle, and extraordinary leadership talents, this does not mean their understanding and actions are not limited by the conditions of the times." In the latter stage of the "Cultural Revolution," Mao Zedong also began to pay attention to adjusting policies, changing the difficult situation in the literary and art world—characterized over nearly a decade by "eight hundred million people watching eight plays" [30]—and the stagnation of the literary world. He issued instructions approving the report from the leading group for publication affairs regarding the "Request for Instructions on the Collation and Publication of the Twenty-Four Histories and the Draft History of Qing," published a batch of Chinese and foreign history books and scientific reference books, and restored or founded several periodicals; he sought to "gradually expand literary and artistic programs over one, two, and three years." Xi Jinping has pointed out: "In leading the people in socialist construction, our Party has two historical periods: one before the reform and opening up, and one after. These are two periods that are both interconnected and significantly different, but in essence, they are both practical explorations by our Party in leading the people in socialist construction... the two are by no means severed from each other, let alone fundamentally opposed." Deeply grasping the spirit of this discourse requires recognizing the important achievements, as well as the setbacks and mistakes, made by the generation of leaders led by Mao Zedong in the inheritance and development of excellent traditional Chinese culture during the period of socialist revolution and construction. This allows us to establish an ideological foundation for the CPC’s inheritance and development of excellent traditional Chinese culture from both positive and negative aspects. From another perspective, this also demonstrates that Chinese communists have always been the faithful inheritors and promoters of excellent traditional Chinese culture.
From this, we further reflect on a series of factors affecting the inheritance and development of excellent traditional Chinese culture. First is the relationship with politics. Culture possesses a strong ideological attribute. We must fully recognize the strategic significance of inheriting and developing excellent traditional Chinese culture for the realization of Chinese-path modernization and the great cause of national rejuvenation, as well as its importance for China to stand firm amidst the "world’s great changes unseen in a century." Consequently, we must enhance the country’s cultural soft power and strengthen cultural confidence in the process of inheriting and developing excellent traditional Chinese culture. Second is the relationship with the principal contradiction [31] of society. The Eighth National Congress of the CPC correctly identified shifts in the domestic principal contradiction following the basic completion of socialist transformation. Regrettably, this correct line was not fully maintained, leading to the later determination to take "class struggle as the key link," erroneously emphasizing the dangers of "revisionists taking power" and "capitalist restoration," and using mass movements and political struggles to solve literary and artistic issues, whereby traditional culture was swept into the "dustbin of history." Currently, the principal contradiction of society has changed once again. We must accurately grasp the relationship between inheriting and developing excellent traditional Chinese culture, promoting revolutionary culture, and developing advanced socialist culture, and meeting the people’s needs for a better life. Third is the relationship with the Party’s historical orientation. Currently, we are in a critical period where the Party is leading the people from "standing up" and "growing rich" to "becoming strong." We should gradually recognize and master the laws of socialist cultural construction, grasp the common characteristics of the basic tenets of Marxism and excellent traditional Chinese culture, facilitate their mutual integration and "two-way pursuit," and further open up the space for the inheritance and development of excellent traditional Chinese culture, thereby laying a cultural foundation for the Party's theoretical innovation. Fourth is the relationship with intellectuals. The focus of cultural construction is on people, and the key to the inheritance and development of excellent traditional Chinese culture also lies with people. Intellectuals play a crucial role in this process. Stimulating the cultural vitality of intellectuals and mobilizing their initiative can effectively promote the creative transformation and innovative development of excellent traditional Chinese culture. The reflections mentioned above have not been covered extensively in this article and represent areas for extended research in the future. Furthermore, as this article is based only on a study of the Chronological Life (Nianpu), omissions due to taking a part for the whole are inevitable. In the future, I will use more discourses from Mao Zedong and other leaders to study the Party’s tortuous exploration of inheriting and developing excellent traditional Chinese culture during the period of socialist revolution and construction, making the research content richer and more substantial.