Pang Yi and Sun Jianmeng: Inheritance and Transcendence: A Review of Research on Huxiang Culture and Mao Zedong
Mao Zedong was the great pioneer of the Sinicization of Marxism and the core of the first generation of the CPC central leadership collective. Mao Zedong Thought is the product of the integration of the universal principles of Marxism-Leninism with the concrete practice of the Chinese revolution. As a distinctive flower within the garden of fine traditional Chinese culture, Huxiang culture [1] profoundly influenced the formation of Mao Zedong Thought. Gaining a deep understanding of how Huxiang culture integrated with Mao Zedong Thought is an essential component of recognizing and mastering the "integration of the basic tenets of Marxism with fine traditional Chinese culture"—namely, the "Second Integration" [2].
Research results concerning Huxiang culture and Mao Zedong have emerged in succession, making a comprehensive understanding of the combination of Huxiang culture and Mao Zedong Thought possible. However, most current research consists of separate investigations into Huxiang culture or Mao Zedong studies; it still lacks a systematic synthesis. By reviewing research on Huxiang culture and Mao Zedong, three research lineages emerge: first, Huxiang culture and the cultivation of Mao Zedong’s personality; second, Huxiang culture and Mao Zedong’s personal thought; and third, Huxiang culture and Mao Zedong Thought. Not daring to hide my own modest intellect [3], I attempt to summarize and examine the relevant issues on the basis of clarifying research on Huxiang culture and Mao Zedong, with the aim of advancing research into Huxiang culture and Mao Zedong Thought, thereby providing a theoretical reference for the "Second Integration."
I. Huxiang Culture and the Cultivation of Mao Zedong’s Personality
Mao Zedong was born in Shaoshan, Hunan, and spent his precious youth in the province. Huxiang culture left a deep imprint upon him and laid the fundamental colors of his life. For any individual, the most important stage for the cultivation of character is undoubtedly the period of youth.
(1) The Influence of Huxiang Culture on Mao Zedong’s Personality Orientations
Personality orientations determine an individual’s attitude toward things and the direction of their behavior. Academic circles have focused on the influence of Huxiang culture on Mao Zedong’s personality orientations primarily from the levels of ideals, beliefs, and his "Three Outlooks" (worldview, outlook on life, and values).
Regarding ideals and beliefs, focus has primarily rested on patriotism, awareness of the people's suffering, and the spirit of struggle. The ideals and beliefs of the young Mao Zedong were deeply influenced by Huxiang culture; the Huxiang cultural concepts of "the Great Root and Primary Source" [4], "statecraft and practical utility" [5], "patriotism and concern for the people," and "prioritizing change and innovation" served as the foundation for the establishment of Mao Zedong’s Marxist faith. The characteristics of Huxiang culture—upholding the banner of patriotism and advocating for national righteousness—inspired the young Mao Zedong’s intense patriotic consciousness. The patriotic character of Huxiang culture and the academic style of Hunanese scholars influenced the formation of Mao’s patriotic stance. The sense of mission to save the nation by "taking responsibility for all under heaven" [6] held by Huxiang scholars strengthened the young Mao Zedong’s sense of responsibility to serve the country.
Regarding the awareness of the people’s suffering, Huxiang culture emphasizes national integrity, intense patriotic passion, and a sense of social responsibility, which endowed Mao Zedong with a strong patriotic thought characterized by taking responsibility for the world. The nationalist tradition of Huxiang culture fostered Mao Zedong's patriotism, and the tradition of "the people as the foundation of the state" [7] shaped his people-centered nature. The fervent spirit of patriotism, the loyal sentiment of worrying for the country and its people, the profound populist thought, and the sense of responsibility to take all under heaven as one's duty within Huxiang culture nourished Mao Zedong’s personal growth. The Huxiang culture's consciousness of hardship [8] endowed Mao Zedong with the patriotic quality of worrying for the nation and the people.
On the level of the spirit of struggle, the characteristics of Huxiang culture—diligent self-encouragement, tenacious struggle, and indomitability—fostered Mao Zedong’s spirit of struggle. The spirit of self-strengthening [9] in Huxiang culture was clearly manifested in Mao Zedong's personality. Huxiang culture birthed Mao Zedong’s indomitable spirit of struggle. Huxiang scholars were daring in battle and in striving, courageous in undertaking affairs for the nation, and brave in self-sacrifice, which strengthened Mao Zedong’s revolutionary will to fight. The "stubbornness" [10] emphasized in Huxiang culture molded Mao Zedong’s dauntless spirit.
In terms of worldview, outlook on life, and values, Huxiang culture—which emphasizes the unity of substance and application [11] and statecraft—profoundly influenced the young Mao Zedong. The focus in Huxiang culture on exploring the Great Root and Primary Source of the universe and human life influenced the formation of his worldview and outlook on life. Mao Zedong inherited the developmental view of movement and change from Huxiang culture, forming a cosmology of "daily renewal through change" and "motion."
Mao Zedong formed a unique view of knowledge and action and a view of practice, for which Huxiang culture deserves great credit. Influenced by the Huxiang cultural emphasis on "vigorous practice" [12], Mao Zedong formed a mature view of knowledge and action. The community of Huxiang talents, as representatives of Huxiang culture, facilitated Mao Zedong’s view of knowledge and action that prioritized vigorous practice and statecraft. Under the influence of the Huxiang sages' historical view of creating the world and their patriotic democratic spirit of worrying for the country and the people, Mao Zedong possessed a view of knowledge and action oriented toward practical utility.
Furthermore, Huxiang culture influenced Mao Zedong’s views on culture and revolution. The resilience, drive, unity, courage, stubbornness, and obstinacy—along with the rebellious and destructive qualities—contained within Huxiang culture made Hunan a region that "led the trends of the times" [13], which in turn influenced Mao Zedong’s early cultural views. The Huxiang cultural ideal of reform and seeking change influenced Mao Zedong’s revolutionary outlook.
(2) The Influence of Huxiang Culture on Mao Zedong’s Individual Psychological Characteristics
Individual psychological characteristics primarily include ability, temperament, and character. Existing research has explored the relationship between Huxiang culture and Mao Zedong’s psychological traits.
The consciousness of transformation in Huxiang culture led Mao Zedong to develop a character that refused to accept defeat. Modern Huxiang culture, represented by Wang Chuanshan [14], had a major influence on Mao Zedong’s personality traits; the spirit of struggle—contained in the concepts of daily renewal and self-strengthening—birthed Mao Zedong’s "active" and "struggling" character. The veneration of integrity and the consciousness of transformation in Huxiang culture were the sources of the formation of Mao Zedong’s "challenging" personality. Mao Zedong possessed a rebellious character rooted in the folk traditions of Huxiang.
The climate of venerating practical learning and advocating for vigorous practice in Huxiang culture influenced Mao Zedong’s pragmatic character. The tradition among Hunanese scholars of valuing both "principle" and "factuality" in studying and governing history—particularly the tradition of practical learning—influenced Mao Zedong’s pragmatic style. The spirit of "factuality and depth" [15] in the practical learning of Huxiang culture had an important influence on fostering Mao Zedong’s early ideal personality, specifically a working style of "shunning vanity and guarding against superficiality in favor of pragmatism," "diligence in small matters and meticulous precision," and the attitude that "one who can chew vegetable roots can accomplish anything" [16]. Huxiang scholars emphasized applying learning to practical use and "paying attention to the study of statecraft," which provided the young Mao Zedong with a pragmatic and truth-seeking academic style, always combining learning with the transformation of society.
The tenacious and stubborn character of the Hunanese people was also vividly reflected in Mao Zedong. Local culture in Shaoshan—and particularly the persevering, tenacious, and resilient character of Mao Zedong’s father, Mao Shunsheng—played a major role in molding Mao Zedong.
Compared to character, there has been less exploration into the influence of Huxiang culture on Mao Zedong’s personality cultivation from the perspectives of ability and temperament. Regarding temperament, the thinking model in Huxiang culture—an organic unity of philosophical thinking and poetic talent—created Mao Zedong’s unique temperament, which unified "tiger-spirit" and "monkey-spirit" [17]. The Huxiang tradition of not fearing sacrifice endowed Mao Zedong with heroic spirit. Regarding ability, the pursuit of life values in the Huxiang cultural tradition—emphasizing "ordering and governing the world" and "achieving both deeds and merit"—had an important influence on forging Mao Zedong’s life experience of "mastering the ways of the world" and his political talent for being "daring to lead the world."
(3) The Influence of Huxiang Culture on Mao Zedong’s Self-Consciousness
Self-consciousness primarily refers to an individual’s awareness and regulation of their own physical and mental state, encompassing self-knowledge, self-experience, and self-regulation. Existing research primarily explores the relationship between Huxiang culture and Mao Zedong’s self-consciousness from two aspects: the consciousness of the sage and the consciousness of self-cultivation. In terms of the consciousness of the sage, Huxiang culture’s advocacy for "taking the sage as one’s aspiration and seeking the Great Root and Primary Source," "promoting practical learning and emphasizing statecraft," and "venerating daily renewal, self-strengthening, and daring to lead the world" had an important influence on Mao Zedong’s early ideal of a "sage-like personality," a moral realm of "selflessness," and a spirit of self-sacrifice characterized by "cutting off one's hand to save the body from a venomous snake." Under the molding of the Huxiang cultural view of sages, Mao Zedong formed a view that everyone could become a sage. Regarding the consciousness of self-cultivation, the Huxiang cultural spirit emphasizing the unity of substance and application and statecraft profoundly influenced the young Mao Zedong’s awareness of self-cultivation through physical strengthening. Mao Zedong, influenced by the Huxiang cultural emphasis on practical experience and the body, developed the self-cultivation skill of "civilizing the mind and brutalizing the body" [18].
Existing research has explored the important role of Huxiang culture in Mao Zedong’s personality cultivation in depth, laying an important foundation for understanding how Mao Zedong became a great man of his generation. However, researchers have lacked clear definitions of terms like character, personality, persona, temperament, and talent; the connotations and boundaries of these related concepts are somewhat blurred, leading to frequent repetition in content.
II. Huxiang Culture and Mao Zedong’s Personal Thought
The formation of Mao Zedong’s personal thought cannot be separated from the nourishment of Huxiang culture, manifested primarily in how it influenced his grasp of essence and laws, his understanding of revolution and construction, and his views on literature, art, and physical education.
(1) The Influence of Huxiang Culture on Mao Zedong’s Grasp of Essence and Laws
Philosophy makes one profound, while history makes one wise; philosophy and history are the foundational disciplines for grasping essence and laws. The influence of Huxiang culture on Mao Zedong’s grasp of essence and laws is primarily based on an analysis of what kind of philosophical and historical thought Mao Zedong formed under its influence.
The formation of Mao Zedong’s philosophical thought is deeply related to Huxiang culture. In terms of philosophical content, dialectical thought led Mao Zedong to recognize the universality, mobility, and struggle of contradictions, as well as the internal factors that constitute the development of things. The "view of knowledge and action"—that is, the "theory of prioritizing action"—led Mao Zedong to accept ideas such as "action precedes knowledge," learning from practice, learning in service of reality, "action" determining "knowledge," and "knowledge" guiding "action." In Huxiang culture, concepts such as "taking the initiative" and "seeking change" had a massive influence on Mao Zedong’s early view of motion; in particular, under the direct influence of Yang Changji [19], Mao Zedong absorbed Wang Fuzhi’s view of motion and stillness and began to seek the motive force for development within the movement of internal contradictions, emphasizing the aspect of struggle between opposing sides of a contradiction. In terms of philosophical style, Mao Zedong's poetic language and political philosophy were closely linked. The nourishment and affinity of Huxiang folk character, the origin of the Hunanese scholar academic style at the Yuelu Academy, Zeng Guofan’s thought on statecraft and practical utility, and Tan Sitong's "Study of Benevolence" [20] all had a massive influence on the formation of Mao Zedong’s poetic philosophy.
Huxiang culture played an important role in the formation of Mao Zedong's historical thought. In terms of historical content, the primary characteristics of Huxiang culture influenced his historiography: "statecraft and practical utility" influenced Mao’s search for experience and methods in history to guide the Chinese revolution; "seeking truth from facts" influenced his application of historical experience to practice; "patriotism" influenced his respect for China’s history and his refusal to sever ties with it; "resilience and tenacity" influenced his love for history; and "the people as the foundation of the state" led Mao to recognize the power of the people in history. In terms of historical methodology, the Huxiang tradition of valuing history deeply influenced Mao Zedong’s enthusiasm for the field. Wang Chuanshan’s active view of history, Zeng Guofan’s view of statecraft and historical practice, Tan Sitong’s use of life to advance "ceaseless" history, and Yang Changji’s advocacy for using ancient history for modern purposes—all of these had an important influence on Mao Zedong’s historical thought.
(2) The Influence of Huxiang Culture on Mao Zedong’s Understanding of Revolution and Construction
Huxiang culture influenced Mao Zedong’s thoughts on military affairs, diplomacy, and law, which were crucial to how he understood revolution and construction and how he participated in and led the cause of revolution and construction.
Mao Zedong’s military thought was deeply influenced by the military ideas of Huxiang predecessors. Some scholars have conducted comprehensive research on the relationship between Huxiang culture and Mao Zedong’s military thought, arguing that the martial spirit of the Hunanese, the success of the Xiang Army [21], and the emergence of the Hunanese talent group had a massive influence on the formation of Mao Zedong’s military thought.
Huxiang culture was an important source for the shaping of Mao Zedong’s diplomatic thought. Mao Zedong critically inherited the Huxiang concepts of seeking truth from facts, the dialectical relationship between the universality and particularity of contradictions, and the relationship between the struggle and identity of contradictions, applying them broadly to diplomacy. Specifically, the philosophical concept of exploring the "Great Root and Primary Source" influenced Mao Zedong’s style as a grand diplomatic strategist; the pursuit of "fundamental ideals" influenced his idealistic diplomatic style; the cultural heritage of "independent rootedness" [22] influenced his diplomatic style of seeking independence and self-reliance; the "bold and resolute" folk custom influenced his diplomatic style of not fearing brute force; and the "simple and honest" folk character influenced his diplomatic style based on integrity. In terms of international strategic thought, the "independent rootedness" of Huxiang scholars influenced the central position of independence and self-reliance in Mao Zedong’s thought, the prominent political-ethical color of Huxiang culture influenced his value orientation of political ethics, and the bold and resolute folk customs of Huxiang influenced the "challenging" nature of his international strategic thought.
Mao Zedong’s legal thought was imbued with the heritage of Huxiang culture. Some scholars have analyzed the imprint of Huxiang culture in Mao Zedong’s legal thought and consistently argued that—
The concept of "the people as the foundation of the state" (min wei bang ben) deeply influenced Mao Zedong’s legal thought regarding the primacy of the people. Simultaneously, the promotion of "concrete learning" (shixue) [23] helped Mao form a legal methodology of "ordering the world for practical use" (jingshi zhiyong) and an instrumentalist theory of legal function. The distinction lies in how different scholars emphasize these influences: some argue that Huxiang culture’s philosophical tendency to seek the "fundamental source" (daben dayuan) drove Mao toward a Marxist legal outlook, while the courage to be a "pioneer" and a sense of anxiety for the nation and its people pushed him to propose and practice this legal vision. Others suggest that the Huxiang tradition of advocating a "seek truth from facts" academic style influenced Mao’s legal insistence on combining knowledge with action and conducting field investigations, while the pioneering spirit of innovation stimulated his creative consciousness and capacity within legal thought. Furthermore, regarding the connection between the philosophical depth of Huxiang culture and Mao’s philosophy of law: the pioneering spirit of "reforming the law to ensure survival" provided the patriotist and reformist undercurrents of his legal philosophy; the value of "the people as the foundation; when the foundation is solid, the state is at peace" served as an important intellectual source for the mass line within his legal philosophy; and the pragmatic academic style of "the unity of knowledge and action" and "ordering the world for practical use" provided a reference for the epistemology of seeking truth from facts in his legal philosophy.
(3) The Influence of Huxiang Culture on Mao Zedong’s Views on Literature, Art, and Physical Education The formation of Mao Zedong’s thoughts on literature, art, and physical education did not happen overnight; rather, they possess deep cultural roots, among which Huxiang culture exerted a significant influence.
In terms of literature and art, the "people-centered" (minben) thought in Huxiang culture gave rise to Mao’s ideas on the popularization of culture—the fundamental tenet that "literature and art should serve the masses." The tradition of "ordering the world for practical use" influenced Mao’s emphasis on the political utility of culture, namely that "literature and art should serve politics." The inclusive nature of Huxiang culture influenced Mao’s policy of "letting a hundred flowers bloom and a hundred schools of thought contend." The fighting spirit of "independent tenacity" and being a "pioneer for the world" influenced Mao’s principle of "making the past serve the present and foreign things serve China." Mao’s literary and artistic thought was nurtured by Huxiang culture: the pursuit of the "fundamental source" influenced his historical materialism regarding the people; the spirit of "practical rationality" led him to maintain the values of revolutionary literature and art at the artistic level; and the atmosphere of Romanticism flavored his aesthetic impulse toward self-expression and emotional emphasis. Mao inherited the Huo-xiang concept of "ordering the world for practical use," viewing literature and art as a means of social transformation and emphasizing a socio-utilitarian view—that art must serve the reform of the citizenry and politics, highlighting its function of political moralization. The Romantic spirit of Qu Yuan [24] not only profoundly influenced Mao’s literary thought but also inspired his militant career.
Huxiang culture also nurtured Mao Zedong’s thoughts on physical education, leading him to value physical exercise throughout his life. Mao’s view that "the body carries virtue and wisdom" inherited Wang Chuanshan’s [25] perspective that "the form carries the spirit." The Huxiang characteristics of "ordering the world for practical use" and "ordering the state to benefit the world" influenced Mao’s idea of "strengthening the will to save the nation through sports." The tenacious and unyielding spirit of progress influenced his ideas on exercising the body to temper the will. The realistic spirit of "unifying knowledge and action" influenced his emphasis on persistent effort and practice. The Huxiang view of "personal practice" (gongxing jianlü) drove Mao to persist in exercise his whole life; the philosophical idea of "exploring the foundation and investigating the source" gave birth to his work A Study of Physical Education; the tradition of "establishing virtue and cultivating the self" sublimated his understanding of the function of sports; and the spirit of "ordering the world to aid the state" laid the foundation for his idea that "sports should serve politics."
Existing research has effectively demonstrated that Huxiang culture played a vital role in the formation of Mao Zedong’s personal thought across many dimensions. However, relevant studies remain somewhat fragmented and have not yet systematically expanded into every facet of his personal thought.
III. Huxiang Culture and Mao Zedong Thought
Mao Zedong Thought refers to the theoretical summation of the unique experiences of China's long-term revolutionary practice, formulated by Chinese Communists with Comrade Mao Zedong as their chief representative, based on the fundamental principles of Marxism-Leninism. It is a scientific guiding ideology suited to China’s conditions and the product of combining the universal principles of Marxism-Leninism with the concrete practice of the Chinese revolution. While there is consistency between Mao Zedong’s personal thought and Mao Zedong Thought (as a collective party ideology), there are also differences. Many scholars have focused on the relationship between Huxiang culture and the "living soul" of Mao Zedong Thought, the "Three Magic Weapons," and his works On Practice and On Contradiction.
(1) Huxiang Culture and the "Living Soul" of Mao Zedong Thought The "living soul" of Mao Zedong Thought primarily comprises seeking truth from facts, the mass line, and independence. These are all closely linked to Huxiang culture.
"Seeking truth from facts" primarily refers to proceeding from reality, integrating theory with practice, and combining the universal principles of Marxism-Leninism with the concrete practice of the Chinese revolution. Huxiang culture’s advocacy for a pragmatic, truth-seeking academic style that "orders the world for practical use" allowed Mao to recognize the importance of pragmatism and successfully integrate it into his philosophical system, condensed into the four characters "Shì Shì Qiú Shì" (Seek Truth from Facts). In terms of form, Wang Chuanshan’s views—such as "sincerity lies in actual existence" and "forgetting the self to become one with principle"—as well as Zeng Guofan’s [26] pragmatism of "investigating things to exhaustively understand their principles," prepared the basic materials for Mao’s thought. The academic style at Hunan First Normal University, which strictly avoided empty talk and focused on pragmatic practice, had a major impact on Mao’s proposal of this concept. The educational orientation and ideological atmosphere of Dongshan School also allowed Mao to be influenced early on by the pragmatic spirit and "seeking truth from facts" style of Huxiang culture.
Investigation and research are the path and method for seeking truth from facts. The Huxiang scholarly tradition of respecting rational philosophy and emphasizing practical utility led Mao to attach great importance to investigation, laying the ideological foundation for his "seek truth from facts" thought. The tradition of "concrete learning for ordering the world" influenced Mao’s realistic style and spirit, shaping his character as a young man who valued practice. This enabled him, after accepting Marxism, to combine it with Chinese reality and eventually propose the thesis of the "Sinicization of Marxism."
"Seeking truth from facts" inherited from and transcended Huxiang culture. Influenced by the Huxiang trend of "investigating principles through facts," Mao attached special importance to "useful learning" that could be "seen in facts." After accepting Marxism, he inherited the traditional views that "facts are things" and "truth is principle," yet endowed them with fresh Marxist content. Thus, Mao Zedong Thought contains an implicit inheritance and transcendence of Huxiang culture. While the Huxiang tradition influenced Mao’s emphasis on practice and investigation, after accepting Marxism, he discarded the idealistic elements within Huxiang "practical learning," preserved the cultural characteristics of valuing practice and truth-seeking, and integrated them with Marxist epistemology.
The "mass line" primarily refers to doing everything for the masses, relying on the masses in everything, coming from the masses, and going to the masses. Huxiang culture and the mass line are connected in terms of content and form. In terms of content, Huxiang people-centeredness combined with the Marxist view of the masses to form Mao’s mass line; specifically, the assertion that "one's own unique insight is never as good as the consensus of the multitude" influenced the view of believing in and relying on the masses. Huxiang people-centered thought endowed Mao with deep sentiment for the people; the idea of "ordering the world for practical use" was the logical starting point of his mass line; his sense of responsibility toward the masses shared the same origin as the Huxiang spirit of "taking responsibility" (dangdan); and his methods for work among the masses were closely linked to the Huxiang spirit of exploring the original Dao. Mao’s ideas on equality shared the same bloodline as the Huxiang consciousness of equality, and his style of hard struggle was inseparable from Huxiang ideas on diligence and frugality. In terms of form, the "people as the foundation" thought reached Mao through various channels—especially through the personal example and teachings of Yang Changji [27]—making him realize the immense power hidden within the masses and leading him to care for the people and the grassroots of society. The Huxiang ideal of the "character of sages and heroes" led the young Mao to pursue the life of a "sage," valuing "the lives of the people" and "saving the commoners" to find the correct path to save the nation, providing cultural nourishment for the later development of the mass line. Mao’s view of the masses inherited the rational core of Huxiang "people-centeredness," valuing the power of the people, while using scientific Marxist theory to strip away the historical and class limitations of traditional thought.
"Independence and self-reliance" are the inevitable conclusions of proceeding from Chinese reality and relying on the masses for revolution and construction. The Huxiang concept of "relying on oneself" (shiji), as well as the emphasis that "he who gains the Dao receives much help, but the entrepreneur does not rely on help; only by not relying can one be relied upon," influenced the formation of Mao’s "independence" (duli zizhu) thought. The Huxiang traits of "self-reliance" and "valuing the self" prompted Mao’s independent thinking, fostered a character of self-standing, and formed his fighting spirit of proactive progress and self-improvement. The strong sense of national crisis and the political consciousness of being concerned for the country and the people in Huxiang culture instilled in Mao a strong sense of patriotism. At the same time, he determined to use Marxism to transform China and the world, drive imperialism out of China, and restore the independence of the Chinese nation—combining internationalism with patriotism, national struggle with class struggle, and prioritizing self-reliance while seeking foreign aid as a supplement.
(2) Huxiang Culture and On Practice and On Contradiction On Practice and On Contradiction are Mao Zedong’s most important philosophical works. The formation of Mao Zedong Thought, as influenced by Huxiang culture, is significantly reflected in these two works.
The theory of practice primarily refers to Mao’s philosophical understanding of the problem of practice. It is both the theoretical product of combining the Marxist view of practice with China's concrete practice and the concrete application and in-depth development of that view in China. Mao inherited the Huxiang academic style of emphasizing reality and practice, stressing the need to put theory into practice rather than engaging in pure metaphysical speculation or "seeking a living from books." Meanwhile, Mao inherited the "knowledge and action" (zhixing) view of the Hunan academic style, providing a more profound elucidation of the relationship between theory and practice in On Practice. Mao’s theory of practice inherited the social-ontological characteristics of Wang Chuanshan’s historical philosophy—namely, exploring the "fundamental source"—and proposed that "the standpoint of practice is the primary and basic standpoint of the dialectical-materialist theory of knowledge." He also inherited the practical-rationalist characteristics of Chuanshan’s philosophy, proposing the dialectical unity of knowledge and action. Furthermore, he inherited the social-change (bianyi) characteristics of Chuanshan’s philosophy, leading to his deep conviction in the historical materialism that "the people, and the people alone, are the motive force in the making of world history."
The Huxiang view of knowledge and action also influenced On Practice. The trend of Huxiang "concrete learning," represented by Wang Chuanshan, was passed down through Wei Yuan, Zeng Guofan, Tan Sitong, and Yang Changji to the young Mao Zedong, exerting a major influence on his view of practice. This thought took deep root in Mao's mind through Yang Changji’s guidance, leading him to form a view where practice is governed by reason.
The theory of contradiction concerns the essential ideas of contradiction and development. Huxiang culture played a certain role in nurturing and generating On Contradiction. Mao inherited the dialectical thinking of "dividing one into two" (yi fen wei er) found in Huxiang culture, which formed the basis of his theory. It was precisely by absorbing the dialectical thoughts in Huxiang culture and merging them with Marxist philosophy that Mao created his own philosophy of contradiction, greatly enriching the theory of materialist dialectics.
(3) Huxiang Culture and the "Three Magic Weapons" The "Three Magic Weapons" is Mao Zedong’s basic summation of the historical experience of the CPC’s revolutionary struggle, comprising the united front, armed struggle, and Party building.
Huxiang culture had a profound influence on the formation of the "united front" thought. On one hand, the Huxiang people’s...
The concept of "harmony and convergence" (he-he) [28] influenced Mao Zedong’s thinking on uniting all forces that can be united; the Hunanese concept of "relying on oneself" (shiji) influenced Mao’s insistence on "independence and autonomy" within the united front; the Hunanese tradition of people-as-the-root (minben) consciousness influenced Mao’s adherence to the principles of proletarian leadership and the worker-peasant alliance within the united front; and the theory of the unity of opposites found in Huxiang culture influenced Mao’s dialectical approach of "both alliance and struggle." On the other hand, the formation and development of united front theory inherited the patriotic tradition of Huxiang culture characterized by "concern for the world and daring to be the first" [29]; its fundamental principles amplified the Huxiang spiritual character of "indomitable perseverance and independence"; its fundamental standpoint sublimated the Huxiang people-as-the-root ideology of "the people are the foundation of the state, and one must be benevolent toward and love the people"; its formation and development benefited from the spiritual quality of "statecraft for practical use" (jingshi zhiyong) [30] and "seeking truth from facts" found in Huxiang culture; and its essential connotation contained the cultural essence of Huxiang’s "harmony without uniformity and inclusive pluralism" [31].
Party building is the central link among the three "magic weapons" [32], and the role of Huxiang culture therein cannot be ignored. Regarding political building, the Confucian tradition of self-reflection within Huxiang culture and the collective moral practice of "mutual support among teachers and friends" (shiyou jiazhi) [33] influenced Mao Zedong’s spirit of "self-criticism," shaped his thoughts on intra-Party life, and promoted the scientific and institutionalized nature of life within the Party. Regarding the building of work style (zuofeng), Huxiang culture’s emphasis on the close link between scholarship and reality influenced the formation of Mao’s theory on the Party’s work style of integrating theory with practice; Huxiang culture’s inheritance and promotion of Confucian people-as-the-root ideology influenced the formation of Mao’s theory on the Party’s work style of maintaining close ties with the masses; and the tradition in Huxiang culture of emphasizing the elevation of cultivation through self-reflection was rationally transformed by Mao into the method of criticism and self-criticism. Regarding the anti-corruption struggle, the Huxiang ideals of self-cultivation, introspection, and emulating sages influenced Mao’s emphasis on ideological education and the transformation of the subjective world; the Huxiang ideals of caring for the world and worrying for the country and its people influenced Mao’s commitment to serving the people whole-heartedly; the Huxiang spirit of seeking truth from facts and grit prompted Mao to insist on the "two musts" [34]; and the Huxiang ideals of nurturing and valuing the people and treating the people as the masters aided Mao in relying on the masses to oppose corruption.
Armed struggle is the primary characteristic and form of the Chinese revolution. The influence of Huxiang culture on armed struggle is mainly manifested in its nourishment of Mao Zedong’s military thought. Mao’s famous military assertions, such as "despising the enemy strategically while taking him seriously tactically" and "opposing counter-revolutionary war with revolutionary war," share commonalities or similarities with Wang Chuanshan’s [35] views on the "difficulty and ease" of war and Wei Yuan’s [36] proposition of "stopping war through war." Mao’s concept of people's war was influenced by the ideas of Wang Chuanshan, Wei Yuan, Zeng Guofan [37], Huang Xing, and Cai E regarding the mobilization of and reliance on the masses during wartime. Mao’s thinking on the building of a people’s army was influenced by Zeng Guofan’s emphasis that "loving the people is the first essential of commanding troops"; his strategic and tactical thinking was influenced by Wang Chuanshan and Zeng Guofan, leading to the synthesis of experiences such as active defense and offensive defense. Mao’s thinking on national defense construction was influenced by Zuo Zongtang’s [38] idea of placing equal importance on "maritime defense" and "frontier defense."
Existing research on Huxiang culture and Mao Zedong Thought is relatively deep and comprehensive, but certain discussions remain weak. For instance, there is insufficient research on the link between Huxiang culture and armed struggle, and the role and function played by "the people" therein has yet to be profoundly grasped.
IV. Conclusion
As a component of the fine traditional Chinese culture, Huxiang culture not only nourished the development of Mao Zedong’s character and moral integrity but also played a significant role in the integration of the basic tenets of Marxism with the specific realities of the Chinese revolution. The formation of Mao Zedong Thought is inseparable from the contributions of Huxiang culture. At present, research on Huxiang culture and Mao Zedong is flourishing, with results emerging continuously. Summarizing the deficiencies in existing research can point the way for future studies.
First, the organic integration between Huxiang culture and Mao Zedong research is insufficient. In some works, Huxiang culture and Mao Zedong or Mao Zedong Thought are described separately; the nature of the relationship between the two and how to prove it are not fully elaborated. Simultaneously, in order to demonstrate the influence of Huxiang culture on Mao Zedong Thought, some scholars—consciously or unconsciously—select relevant concepts from the theoretical treasury of Mao Zedong Thought and then extract corresponding materials from the resource bank of Huxiang culture to provide proof, which inevitably risks "projecting the film backward" (daofang dianying) [39]. To fully explain the relationship between Huxiang culture and Mao Zedong, it must be understood within its historical context.
Second, there is a lack of necessary dialogue among scholars, which has failed to effectively advance academic growth. Scholars from various disciplines have participated in research on Huxiang culture and Mao Zedong, interpreting the relationship through different perspectives and contributing to the prosperity of the field. However, the problem of "everyone talking to themselves" persists. For example, some studies mention the influence of "statecraft for practical use" (jingshi zhiyong) on Mao Zedong, but when touching upon this issue, they rarely pay attention to previous research and instead simply use the term. Effective academic research should clarify "to what stage previous research has progressed and how my research differs," or "what dimensions others have focused on and what dimension I am focusing on." Only in this way can research be continually pushed forward.
Third, current major research has fallen into the rut of a unidirectional influence of Huxiang culture on Mao Zedong and Mao Zedong Thought. Relevant studies primarily treat Mao Zedong as the subject and Huxiang culture as the object, discussing how the latter influenced the former. However, there is a need for deeper exploration into how Mao Zedong and Mao Zedong Thought enriched and developed Huxiang culture. Among the early works in this field, the book Huxiang Culture and Mao Zedong discussed Mao Zedong as a part of the development of Huxiang culture itself. The author of that book pointed out two ideological lineages in the development of modern Huxiang culture: one being Wang Chuanshan—Tan Sitong—Yang Changji—Mao Zedong, and the other being Wang Chuanshan—Zeng Guofan—Yang Changji—Mao Zedong, thus placing Mao Zedong within the developmental system of Huxiang culture to examine their relationship. In fact, it is only through a bidirectional examination that the relationship between Huxiang culture and Mao Zedong can be profoundly understood and grasped.
Source: Studies on Mao Zedong Thought, Issue 5, 2025. Editor: Huihui.