Di Hongxu and Wang Xinyi: The Publication, Distribution, and Dissemination of the *Selected Works of Mao Zedong* in Frontier Ethnic Regions
The Selected Works of Mao Zedong (hereafter referred to as the Selected Works) serves as the core vehicle for Mao Zedong Thought. It systematically brings together the precious experience and theoretical innovations accumulated by the Communist Party of China (CPC) and the Chinese people during the long period of revolutionary struggle—works Mao Zedong himself referred to as "written in blood." The publication, distribution, and widespread dissemination of the Selected Works powerfully mobilized people of all ethnic groups across the country to participate in the socialist revolution and construction, exerting a profound influence on strengthening the spiritual cohesion of the entire nation. In 1951, the official publication and nationwide distribution of Volume I of the Selected Works marked a new stage in the systematized and popularized dissemination of Mao Zedong Thought, holding significant weight in the history of the dissemination of Marxist theory. By 1965, the four-volume set of the Selected Works, including editions in various ethnic minority languages, had been published and distributed successively, spreading widely through the border ethnic regions via propaganda channels such as newspapers and periodicals.
Previous research on the dissemination of the Selected Works in border ethnic regions has primarily focused on the translation and publication of ethnic language editions; research remains insufficient regarding the broader context of its dissemination and its role in shaping the cohesion of the Chinese nation. From the perspective of advancing the construction of a community for the Chinese nation, the publication and wide dissemination of the Selected Works in border ethnic regions presents a vivid picture of people from all ethnic groups in the borderlands looking toward the Party with one heart and jointly building a modern socialist country. It highlights the multi-dimensional and deep-seated transformative power inherent in the Party's theory and socialist culture. Therefore, this article adopts a holistic perspective on the distribution and dissemination of classical texts to trace the historical trajectory and specific impacts of the Selected Works in border ethnic regions, seeking to reveal the important function of the Party’s theoretical achievements in enhancing Chinese national cohesion. This not only aids in a deeper understanding of the Party's historical practice in fostering Party identity, national identity, and maintaining ethnic unity in border ethnic regions but also provides references and insights for casting a sense of community for the Chinese nation in the New Era and arming the whole Party and educating the people with the Party's innovative theories.
I. The Publication and Distribution of the Selected Works Directed Toward Border Ethnic Regions
During the New Democratic Revolution [1], several editions of Mao Zedong's selected writings were published in various places. However, due to the constraints of wartime conditions, these works were neither approved by the CPC Central Committee nor finalized by Mao Zedong himself. Consequently, these editions suffered from inconsistent editorial formats, textual errors, and the omission of certain important documents, making it difficult to meet the needs of cadres and the masses for systematic study of Mao Zedong Thought. Influenced by various factors, only a small number of Mao Zedong's works were translated into certain ethnic languages during this period, further failing to satisfy the systematic learning needs of cadres and the masses in border ethnic regions. After the founding of New China, the publication and distribution of more systematic and refined versions of Mao Zedong's works was placed on the agenda as a primary task.
In May 1950, the CPC Central Committee decided to publish the Selected Works of Mao Zedong and established a dedicated Publication Committee for the Selected Works of Mao Zedong under the CPC Central Committee. In October 1951, the Standard Spoken and Written Chinese [2] edition of Volume I of the Selected Works was distributed simultaneously across major cities nationwide. By September 1960, Volumes I through IV of the Selected Works had all been published and distributed. The publication and distribution of this edition of the Selected Works in border ethnic regions received a warm welcome from cadres and the masses.
(1) Systematically provide ethnic language versions for the publication and distribution of the Selected Works
To help cadres and the masses of all ethnic groups better study Mao Zedong’s works, master Mao Zedong Thought, and strengthen the dissemination of the Party’s theory in ethnic regions, the Central Committee decided during the editing process of Volume I to systematically translate it into ethnic language versions for timely publication based on the actual conditions of border ethnic regions. Taking Xinjiang as an example, in March 1951, the Xinjiang People's Publishing House began organizing the translation of the Uyghur, Kazakh, and Mongolian editions of the Selected Works according to requirements. On October 12, 1951, the Xinjiang branch of Xinhua Bookstore distributed Volume I of the Selected Works. Since the translation of the entire volume could not be completed simultaneously, it was accompanied by the distribution of pamphlets of Mao Zedong’s works in Uyghur, Mongolian, and Kazakh, including On New Democracy, On Coalition Government, and On the People's Democratic Dictatorship. After the distribution of Volume I, people of all ethnic groups in Xinjiang showed great interest, not only actively purchasing and reading them but also writing to the Xinjiang People's Publishing House to ask, "When will the ethnic language editions of the Selected Works of Mao Zedong be published?" To better meet the people's demands while ensuring translation quality, the Xinjiang Sub-bureau of the CPC Central Committee established a Translation and Publication Committee for the Selected Works of Mao Zedong after Volume I was published, responsible for leading the translation and publication of the Uyghur, Kazakh, and Mongolian editions. Under the leadership of this committee and through the tireless efforts of the Xinjiang People's Publishing House, individual pamphlets of Volume I in Uyghur and Kazakh were published in April 1952, including six types of Uyghur pamphlets and four types of Kazakh pamphlets. Following their release, the committee extensively solicited opinions from readers of various ethnic groups and from the translation community, making targeted adjustments to ensure more accurate translations. By the spring of 1953, the Xinjiang People's Publishing House had translated and published 15 separate fascicles of the Uyghur and Kazakh editions of Volume I, with more than 375,000 copies distributed. Thereafter, the distribution of Mao Zedong’s works in ethnic languages in Xinjiang grew year by year. According to statistics from relevant departments, by 1965, Xinhua Bookstores throughout Xinjiang had distributed over 4.39 million copies of Mao Zedong’s works in Uyghur, Kazakh, and Mongolian.
During the same period, the Inner Mongolia People's Publishing House, under the leadership of the Mongolian Language Edition Publication Committee for the Selected Works of Mao Zedong of the Inner Mongolia-Suiyuan Sub-bureau of the CPC Central Committee [3], also carried out Mongolian translations. At the end of March 1953, the Mongolian edition of Volume I was published in the form of 17 separate fascicles, and by the end of April, 68,000 copies had already been distributed. By 1962, the publication of the Mongolian editions of Volumes I through IV was complete.
The translation and publication of the Tibetan edition of the Selected Works was centered on the Tibetan Translation Office of the Nationalities Publishing House, which organized Tibetan translation personnel from across the country to work collectively in Beijing. Between 1959 and 1965, a total of 32,000 copies of Mao Zedong’s works in Tibetan were distributed in Tibet.
By 1965, Volumes I through IV of the Selected Works had been systematically translated into five major ethnic minority languages—Uyghur, Kazakh, Mongolian, Tibetan, and Korean—and published. Utilizing diverse channels, these were widely disseminated in border ethnic regions alongside the four-volume Standard Spoken and Written Chinese edition. According to statistics, in 1965 alone, the distribution of separate volumes of the Selected Works and related works in ethnic languages reached 3.72 million copies, making it the undisputed number-one bestseller in border ethnic regions.
(2) Expanding propaganda and distribution channels for the Selected Works in border ethnic regions
The wide dissemination of the Selected Works in border ethnic regions benefited from multi-media propaganda and diversified distribution channels. At the level of media propaganda, local newspapers and periodicals played an important role in guiding public opinion and introducing content. Whenever a new volume was released, major local newspapers such as the Xinjiang Daily and Inner Mongolia Daily would dedicate special pages to introduce its content and would separately publish certain important articles. For instance, between April 1951 and July 1952, the Xinjiang Daily serialized eight of Mao Zedong's works—including A Single Spark Can Start a Prairie Fire and On Contradiction—for readers to study. On April 12, 1952, the Xinjiang Daily used an entire page to issue a call, advocating for all sectors of society to deeply study the Selected Works, regarding it as a "theoretical weapon for building New China." Simultaneously, on the anniversaries of the publication of important works within the Selected Works, newspapers would organize commemorative articles to guide readers in revisiting the classics. For example, 1961 marked the 35th anniversary of the publication of Analysis of the Classes in Chinese Society; the Ningxia Daily published interpretive articles such as "One Must Learn to Use the Method of Class Analysis—Reading Analysis of the Classes in Chinese Society." In 1962, the 20th anniversary of the Talks at the Yenan Forum on Literature and Art, the Ningxia Daily and Xinjiang Daily also had special commemorative and promotional editions. This continuous, multi-point propaganda ensured the contents of the Selected Works were constantly recalled and deepened across the dimension of time, achieving re-dissemination. Simultaneously, radio stations played a vital role in promoting the Selected Works. In the 1950s, the Central People's Broadcasting Station launched minority language broadcasts, and various autonomous regions successively established people's broadcasting stations, effectively breaking through the barriers of geographical isolation and low literacy rates. This played an important role in the dissemination of the Selected Works. For instance, a 70-year-old Uyghur man heard the news of the distribution of Volume III of the Uyghur Selected Works in Kashgar on the radio at night; before dawn the next day, he rode a donkey more than ten li [4] to a bookstore to purchase five copies for his family.
At the distribution level, the construction of physical channels expanded the breadth and depth of dissemination. To ensure effective distribution, branches of Xinhua Bookstore generally established "Selected Works of Mao Zedong Distribution Small Groups," headed by the manager, to coordinate distribution plans and arrange promotional displays. While increasing fixed outlets, the bookstores also actively developed mobile supply systems. Through forms such as horse-drawn carriage bookstores and "back-basket" book delivery teams, they delivered Mao Zedong's works and portraits to remote areas with poor transportation. For example, Mongolian farmers and herdsmen affectionately called these delivered copies of the Selected Works "Buyinke" (meaning "spring water"). Book sellers from the Xinhua Bookstore in Jilin's Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture carried book boxes on their backs to sell books while promoting Mao Zedong Thought, receiving a warm welcome from the local people. This system of multi-media and multi-channel coordination provided a solid guarantee for the wide, deep, and sustained dissemination of the Selected Works in border ethnic regions.
(3) Cadres and the masses of all ethnic groups in border regions eagerly purchase the Selected Works
The publication and distribution of the Selected Works caused a strong reaction across the country, touching the hearts of cadres and the masses of all ethnic groups in the borderlands. Whenever a volume was released, people of all ethnic groups rushed to purchase it. In October 1951, at the site of the first release of Volume I, Party cadres, People's Liberation Army soldiers, and students left messages in the Xinhua Bookstore guestbooks: "I have bought this book; I am as happy as if I had seen Chairman Mao," and "When I study the Selected Works of Mao Zedong, I feel as if Chairman Mao is standing in front of me pointing out the direction to move forward." When Volume I went on sale simultaneously at the Yinchuan Xinhua Bookstore and the Ningxia Daily retail outlet, cadres from various organs, workers, and students in Yinchuan vied to buy it; cadres from the Provincial Department of Commerce and teachers and students from Ningxia Normal College and the Girls' Middle School even went to the bookstore beating gongs and drums and performing the yangko [5]. Readers who purchased the Selected Works shook hands and congratulated each other, regarding it as the "greatest honor."
As the various ethnic language editions were released, the enthusiasm of the masses for purchasing the books remained high. For example, on April 10, 1952, Volume II was published, and the Uyghur and Kazakh pamphlets of Volume I were released simultaneously. The Xinhua Bookstore in Dihua City [6] sold 1,820 copies of Volume II, 5,500 Uyghur pamphlets, and 480 Kazakh pamphlets in just four hours on the morning of the 10th. Students of various ethnicities—including Uyghur, Kazakh, and Xibe—from the political training class of the Xinjiang Military Region went to the bookstore as a group and purchased a total of 2,320 Uyghur and Kazakh pamphlets. Thereafter, the distribution range and social impact of the ethnic language editions of subsequent volumes expanded further. For instance, when the Tibetan edition of Volume III was released, the people purchasing the book at Xinhua Bookstore included individuals from all walks of life: delegates to the first session of the first People's Congress of the Autonomous Region and members of the first session of the second CPPCC Tibet Committee, as well as Tibetan cadres, workers, urban residents, and suburban farmers. Similarly, when the Mongolian edition of Volume IV was released in Hohhot, many local cadres, students, PLA soldiers, and citizens had already gathered in front of the Xinhua Bookstore at daybreak to wait. These distribution scenes from various regions vividly reflect the enthusiasm of people of all ethnic groups for studying Mao Zedong's works and Mao Zedong Thought, as well as their love and respect for the CPC.
II. The Upsurge of Studying the Selected Works in Border Ethnic Regions
Our Party attaches great importance to theoretical education. In the [editing process of the] Selected Works...
Before the publication of Volume 1, the Party issued documents such as the "Notice on the Decision to Strengthen Theoretical Education," emphasizing that the publicity and study of Marxism-Leninism and Mao Zedong Thought must be placed at the forefront of the Party's theoretical work. Following the release of the Selected Works of Mao Zedong (Mao Xuan), relevant central departments formulated detailed study plans and organized cadres to study in graded levels, requiring them to "become familiar with Comrade Mao Zedong's primary works." These requirements and deployments served as a model for the entire country. On this basis, Party committees at all levels in frontier ethnic regions actively promoted the cause, and the masses of all ethnic groups responded enthusiastically. They gradually established a normalized study mechanism that covered both cadres and the masses, connecting theory and practice, which effectively promoted the deep cultivation and integration of Mao Zedong Thought in the frontier ethnic regions.
(1) Leading cadres issued calls and Party and government organs took the lead in study
As the core leadership force of the study movement, Party organizations at all levels in frontier ethnic regions placed the study and publicity of the Selected Works on their major agendas, constructing a systematic mechanism with clear hierarchies and comprehensive coverage. First, regional Party and government leadership issued calls to study the Selected Works through newspapers and other media. For instance, on the eve of the publication of Volume 1, Zhang Bangying, Third Secretary of the Xinjiang Sub-bureau of the CPC Central Committee, delivered a special report titled "Strive to Study Mao Zedong Thought," publicizing the great political significance of the publication and making arrangements for its study. Other members of the Sub-bureau also published articles in the Xinjiang Daily regarding their study of Mao’s works. After the formal release of Volume 1, Li Jinglin, Vice Chairman and Deputy Secretary of the Party Group of the Ningxia Provincial People's Government, called on all Party and Youth League members in the province to take practical action in studying the Selected Works. After Volume 2 was published, Wang Zhen, Secretary of the Xinjiang Sub-bureau, and Burhan Shahidi [7], Chairman of the Xinjiang Provincial People's Government, published articles in the Xinjiang Daily titled "Establish a System for Studying the Selected Works of Mao Zedong" and "A Great Contribution to the Cause of Marxism-Leninism," respectively, calling on cadres to actively study Mao's works. In Inner Mongolia, a special mobilization rally was held where Ulanhu, First Secretary of the CPC Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region Committee, emphasized that studying the Selected Works was a political task for Inner Mongolian cadres, who must combine theory with practice and apply Mao Zedong Thought to promote the construction of Inner Mongolia. Subsequently, as each volume of the Selected Works was published, mobilization efforts continued to deepen.
Simultaneously, Party organizations at all levels formulated specific methods and regulations for study. Just before Volume 1 was published, the Southwest Sub-bureau of the CPC Central Committee planned not only to organize special articles for publicity but also to arrange for systematic study for cadres at the county level and above. In 1952, the Xinjiang Sub-bureau issued instructions for studying the Selected Works, requiring local Party committees to convene meetings for in-depth mobilization. The Inner Mongolia Sub-bureau and the Qinghai Provincial Committee both organized unified study for high-level cadres, requiring each student to study at least six hours per week, formulate personal study plans, submit regular progress reports, and write reflections or essays for discussion and reporting at the end of each stage. On January 20, 1960, the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region Party Committee issued the "Decision on Deeply Carrying Out the Movement to Study and Publicize Mao Zedong Thought Among Cadres and the Masses," calling for a widespread surge in study across the region. Following this decision, media outlets such as the Guangxi Women's Journal and the Guangxi Youth Daily published articles to promote the movement. This series of measures not only highlighted the political significance of the publication but also provided a strong organizational guarantee for the widespread dissemination and practice of Mao Zedong Thought in frontier ethnic regions.
(2) State-owned enterprises and institutions advanced study in depth
In addition to Party and government organs, industrial and mining enterprises, schools, and hospitals in frontier ethnic regions also attached great importance to the deep study of the Selected Works, forming a system characterized by organization, inspection, and evaluation. The study practices in the Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture were particularly representative. After the Propaganda Department of the Yanbian Prefecture Party Committee held a mobilization rally for cadres in 1960, factories, mines, universities, and hospitals responded quickly, holding oath-taking rallies and symposiums and establishing core study groups. This pushed the study of Mao's works to greater depths; in Yanji County alone, over 100,000 people participated. Many enterprises established normalized study mechanisms. For example, the Shixian Paper Mill formed 20 employee study groups, utilizing union activities and workshop meetings for study and discussion. Employees also focused on combining theoretical study with daily production. Some workers, after studying On Practice, carried forward an innovative spirit and successfully developed electronic automatic measuring devices, significantly improving production efficiency. Study in cultural and educational institutions also showed organized and in-depth characteristics. For instance, the medical college in the Yanbian region established 124 teacher-student mutual aid study groups. Students and faculty at Yanbian University purchased 1,956 volumes of the Selected Works and 3,700 pamphlets within two years, writing 34,000 pages of notes and 12,000 pages of scientific papers. In teaching practice, teachers at the Yanbian Arts School integrated perspectives from Report on an Investigation of the Peasant Movement in Hunan into language teaching, guiding students to analyze the attitudes of different strata within the People’s Communes [8]. The Yanbian Education Publishing House implemented an innovative method of "simultaneously reading, thinking, writing, listening, speaking, and discussing, while alternating concentrated and decentralized study." By publishing study journals, establishing "pace-setters" [9], and conducting regular evaluations, they created a sustainable study mechanism.
(3) Ethnic masses carried out diverse forms of study
Following its publication, the masses in frontier regions regarded the Selected Works as a "golden key" to improving their political-theoretical literacy and guiding their practical work, sparking a wave of diverse study activities. Newspaper reading groups (读报组) were a popular method. In Xinjiang, ethnic language reading groups used the Xinjiang Daily as a textbook, selecting versions in Han (Chinese), Uyghur, Kazakh, and Mongolian according to local conditions. Readers were cadres and teachers of various ethnicities with high political literacy and education levels; sharing language habits, life experiences, and values with their audience gave them a unique advantage in conveying information and mobilizing emotions. Some pastoral areas established specific reading groups to read and explain the Selected Works in tents. For example, Kazakh herdsmen in the Tianshan pastoral areas learned from Kazakh-language pamphlets of the Selected Works, including articles such as "Analysis of the Classes in Chinese Society," "Pay Attention to Economic Work," "Our Economic Policy," and "Be Concerned with the Well-being of the Masses, Pay Attention to Methods of Work." This study model, adapted to the reality of frontier ethnic regions, made the Selected Works a true bridge connecting national ideology with frontier social life. Beyond reading groups, literacy classes and night schools were also important channels for the masses. In frontier regions, these venues often used the Selected Works as teaching material, serving as platforms to explain Mao’s articles and publicize Mao Zedong Thought. On various farms in Hainan, "Cultural and Educational Committees" or literacy groups established night schools in production teams. According to the recollections of Miao students from that time, while the schools taught literacy, they also organized the study of "The Foolish Old Man Who Removed the Mountains" [10], "In Memory of Norman Bethune," and "Serve the People." In Tengchong, Yunnan, the stationed People's Liberation Army helped Lisu villages run cultural night schools, organizing new recruits and local cadres and masses to study together. Through this organized education, a Lisu Brigade Party Branch Secretary who was previously illiterate became able to read the Selected Works independently.
In summary, the study of the Selected Works by cadres and the masses in frontier ethnic regions formed a mechanism combining organizational promotion with popular response, and institutional arrangements with diverse practices. On one hand, activities were conducted under the unified leadership of Party organizations at all levels. By formulating clear plans, establishing specialized organizations, and stipulating specific requirements, the study was constructed as a serious political task and integrated into daily work, forming a top-down, broad-reaching network characterized by high levels of planning and systematicity. On the other hand, the practice was not a simple, mechanical indoctrination; rather, it emphasized adaptation to the linguistic environment, social life, and production realities of the frontier. Whether through newspaper readings in ethnic languages or the integration of study with literacy education and professional work, these forms reflected flexibility and pragmatism at the grassroots level. This combination of organized deployment and diversified practice was the basic form of the dissemination and study of Mao Zedong Thought in frontier regions during this period, and it was key to achieving effective dissemination and deep internalization.
3. The Publication and Dissemination of the Selected Works Effectively Strengthened the Cohesion of the Chinese Nation
The publication and dissemination of the Selected Works essentially transformed the Party's theories, governing philosophy, and policies into social governance resources and cultural forms in frontier regions, a process of shaping the identity of the ethnic masses with the Party and the State. On one hand, the Marxist truths contained in the Selected Works provided value guidance and methodological direction. On the other hand, through organizational forms like reading groups and night schools, the masses linked abstract political concepts with their own life experiences in collective study, gradually forming concrete perceptions and emotional belonging toward concepts such as the "Communist Party of China," the "Chinese Nation" [11], and "New China." This intertwining of top-down ideological dissemination and bottom-up knowledge and cultural reproduction enriched the emotional bond between the various ethnic groups and the CPC, strengthened the political and cultural ties between the frontiers and the interior, and laid a solid ideological foundation for fostering and forging a sense of community for the Chinese nation.
(1) Enhancing the theoretical literacy of the cadre ranks
"Once the political line is determined, cadres are the deciding factor" [12]. After the founding of New China, the nation faced the daunting task of rapidly restoring and developing the national economy and gradually modernizing industry, agriculture, national defense, and science and technology to build a powerful socialist country. For cadres in frontier ethnic regions to lead the masses in completing this task, the key lay in cultivating their own revolutionary will and capability. Arming cadres with the Selected Works strengthened their determination and confidence in socialist revolution and construction. For instance, when the Tibetan edition was released, Ngapoi Ngawang Jigme [13] and others from the Preparatory Committee for the Tibet Autonomous Region stated that to transform their own thinking, they must deeply study Chairman Mao's works to guide Tibet’s socialist construction. This practice of combining textual study with self-transformation was representative among frontier cadres. The scientific methodology and communist character contained in the Selected Works also provided intellectual weapons for analyzing and solving problems. Teachers at the Xinjiang Political-Legal Cadre School, by studying articles like On Practice and Analysis of the Classes in Chinese Society, broke the shackles of empiricism, established a framework of class analysis, and resolved difficulties in their work. Tayir Maimaitili, Deputy Secretary of the Kizilsu Kirghiz Autonomous Prefecture Party Committee, long persisted in studying Mao's works, applying On Practice to guide animal husbandry development. He conducted field investigations over thousands of kilometers and led the masses in building artificial grasslands, significantly improving animal husbandry on the Pamir Plateau. Practice proved that the theoretical wisdom of the Selected Works achieved a value leap from theoretical text to practical efficacy, transforming into actual productive forces. Furthermore, in the training of ethnic minority cadres, Mao's works were always the core content. In 1950, there were only 10,000 ethnic minority cadres nationwide; by 1956, this increased to 210,000, and by 1966, it reached 800,000. This cadre force, armed with Mao Zedong Thought, became the core strength for connecting with the masses and maintaining national unity. They carried out democratic reforms and socialist transformation in frontier regions, promoted regional ethnic autonomy, and played a vital role in socialist modernization, while also deeply expanding the path of political integration for the unified multi-ethnic state.
(2) Enhancing the political identity of the ethnic masses in frontier regions with the Party and the State
At the beginning of the founding of the People's Republic of China, democratic reforms and socialist transformation in frontier ethnic regions had not yet fully commenced, and multiple forms of economic and social systems coexisted. At the same time, remnant forces of the Kuomintang and bandits [14] had not yet been eliminated, social order was highly unstable, and due to the long-term implementation of policies of ethnic oppression by historical rulers, some of the masses harbored doubts regarding the New China and the principles and policies of the Party and the state. In this context, the distribution and dissemination of the Selected Works of Mao Zedong (Mao Xuan) opened a window for the masses of all ethnic groups to understand the Party's theory and its ethnic policies. Through reading and studying Mao Xuan, the masses of all ethnic groups learned about core Marxist concepts such as the Communist Party, class struggle, and the dictatorship of the proletariat; they realized that the goal of the Party-led New Democratic Revolution was to ensure the people act as masters of the country. This led to a relatively clear and accurate cognition of the New China and consolidated their identification with the Communist Party of China and the socialist cause under its leadership. In Xinjiang, for example, herdsmen remarked that after reading Mao Xuan, their hearts became bright, and they understood why they were able to obtain such a happy life. In Inner Mongolia, autonomous region officials presented khata [15] and Mongolian-language editions of Mao Xuan to visiting foreign guests; it is evident that in the hearts of the cadres and masses in ethnic regions, Mao Xuan had already become a carrier of the national image and an expression of friendly sentiment. In Tibet, the dissemination of Mao Xuan allowed the masses of all ethnic groups to gradually understand the irrationality of the feudal serfdom system and the necessity of democratic reform, laying the ideological foundation for Tibet's democratic reform. For instance, a poor peasant in Maizhokunggar County, Tibet, spoke excitedly after purchasing a Tibetan-language edition of Mao Xuan: "Chairman Mao speaks and acts for us poor people. I had nothing in the old society, but now I have land, a house, and livestock, and I live well—this is all because of Chairman Mao's leadership. I bought this book and will certainly study hard, listen to Chairman Mao's words, and do a better job in production." In Yunnan, soldiers of the Hani ethnic group, by studying the expositions on class struggle and armed struggle in Mao Xuan, sublimated their memories of familial suffering under oppression in the old society into a conscious revolutionary awareness of "carrying guns for the people and fighting for the people." Furthermore, the exhibition on learning from Mao Zedong's works held in Beijing also attracted masses from all ethnic groups. A young man of the Zhuang ethnic group from Guangxi wrote in the guestbook after viewing the exhibition: "People of all ethnic groups love you; the beacon light points in the correct direction; everyone loves to read your books." Visitors also spontaneously compared themselves against advanced role models, stating they would "apply while learning" and integrate reading, self-reflection, and practice—setting strict demands on themselves and practicing what they learned to carry out ideological transformation and improve their revolutionary skills. These genuine feelings and conscious self-reflections fully prove that studying Mao Xuan promoted the sincere love of the masses of all ethnic groups for the people's leader, as well as their political identification and ideological alignment with the Party and the state.
(3) Promoting the Dissemination, Development, and Prosperity of Socialist Culture in Frontier Ethnic Regions
As an important carrier of the mainstream ideology of the New China, the ideological concepts and value foundations within Mao Xuan were continuously integrated into the cultural life of frontier ethnic regions during its dissemination, profoundly influencing the content composition and development direction of ethnic culture and art. Various regions began to explore the construction of a new socialist culture that integrated and absorbed revolutionary culture. Among these, the example of the Inner Mongolian Ulan Muqir [16] combining the dissemination of Mao Xuan with the prosperity of socialist culture is quite typical. Members of the Ulan Muqir deeply studied and implemented Mao Zedong Thought; while performing literary and artistic programs, they also delivered books and medicine to the masses of all ethnic groups in the frontier and labored alongside them, earning the warm welcome of the masses. Initially, some members were confused as to why they had to participate in labor to perform artistic works. However, after they studied articles in Mao Xuan such as "Serve the People," "Reform Our Study," and "Talks at the Yenan Forum on Literature and Art," their ideological understanding underwent a fundamental transformation. They realized that literary and art workers should serve the workers, peasants, and soldiers, and should eat, live, and labor together with the masses. The members of the Ulan Muqir remained ever mindful of Mao Zedong’s requirement that "revolutionary culture is a powerful revolutionary weapon for the broad masses of the people." Drawing material from local real-life events, they self-composed and performed a series of programs such as On the Front Line, Dedicated to the Model, and Never Forget One’s Roots. While enriching the spiritual and cultural life of the masses of all ethnic groups, they subtly disseminated revolutionary ideals and convictions, fully realizing the objective of literary and artistic creation serving the people and serving socialism. The value concepts of Mao Xuan were disseminated to ethnic regions through artistic forms, further reaching the masses of all ethnic groups and promoting the integration and symbiosis of the excellent traditional cultures of various ethnicities with socialist culture. Cultural elements of various ethnicities were also endowed with new cultural connotations, becoming new types of carriers for disseminating revolutionary concepts and scientific truths.
(4) Consolidating the Ideological Foundation of the Great Unity of the Chinese Nation
After the founding of the New China, the broad masses of cadres and people gradually launched and deepened their study of the Party's ethnic theory and ethnic policies, striving to construct a new type of socialist ethnic relationship to truly realize equality, unity, and mutual assistance among all ethnic groups. To complete these tasks, it was necessary to ideologically discard the two erroneous understandings of "Great-Han chauvinism" and "local-ethnic chauvinism" [17] to provide an ideological guarantee for the great unity of the Chinese nation. The distribution and dissemination of Mao Xuan provided an authoritative theoretical weapon for this. As early as the New Democratic Revolution period, Mao Zedong noticed the hazards of "two types of nationalism" and conducted profound theoretical expositions on the ethnic question. This is profoundly reflected in Mao Xuan. In relevant articles, Mao Zedong criticized the ethnic oppression policies of the old regime, clearly pointing out: "Regarding the various minority ethnicities within the country, Chiang Kai-shek's policy is to implement Great-Han chauvinism, carrying out devastation and suppression to the extreme." In contrast, Mao Zedong clearly proposed the basic principles and paths for the Communist Party of China to resolve the ethnic question. On the one hand, Great-Han chauvinism must be resolutely opposed: "externally, seek the thorough liberation of the Chinese nation; internally, seek equality among all ethnicities within the country." He advocated that "we must help the broad masses of the people of all minority ethnicities" and "strive for their political, economic, and cultural liberation and development," while "their languages, scripts, customs, habits, and religious beliefs should be respected." On the other hand, local-ethnic chauvinism must be resolutely opposed, emphasizing that "China is a country with a vast population formed by the combination of many ethnicities." These important expositions provided an ideological following from both positive and negative perspectives for the cadres and masses of all ethnic groups to identify and resist erroneous understandings regarding the ethnic question, pointing out the correct direction for achieving ethnic equality, unity, and mutual assistance. At the Third Session of the First National Committee of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC), a member of the Korean ethnic group pointed out that studying Mao Xuan was the only way to overcome narrow nationalist ideology and do a good job in ethnic region work, which is a vivid manifestation of this process of theoretical internalisation.
In practice, in conjunction with investigations into ethnic work carried out by the Party Central Committee, cadres and masses of all ethnic groups began to consciously apply the positions, viewpoints, and methods in Mao Zedong's works to examine and rectify potential deviations in ethnic relations in actual work. For example, the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region organized cadres to systematically study The Chinese Revolution and the Chinese Communist Party, On New Democracy, and Mao Zedong's expositions on ethnic policy, consciously criticizing errors of narrow Great-Han chauvinism and local-ethnic chauvinism in practice, thereby promoting the transformation of Mongol-Han relations toward a more equal, united, and mutually helpful direction. It is evident that Mao Xuan not only practically helped the cadres and masses of all ethnic groups clear away cognitive obstacles to constructing a new type of socialist ethnic relationship at the ideological level, but also provided methodological support for the implementation of the Party's ethnic policies at the practical level. As Ulanhu, then Vice Premier of the State Council and Chairman of the National Religious and Ethnic Affairs Commission, stated, Mao Zedong Thought "not only solved the common problems of all ethnicities but also solved the problems of the particularity of various minority ethnicities." Through theoretical language and basic principles of universal significance, Mao Xuan helped cadres and masses of all ethnic groups deeply understand the historical logic and realistic orientation of the Party's ethnic theory and ethnic policies, prompting learners to think about problems and carry out practice from the standpoint of the overall interests of the state and the Chinese nation, laying a more solid foundation of thought and action for consolidating the unified multi-ethnic state.
As a classic work carrying the theory of the Sinicization of Marxism, Mao Xuan has always shone with the light of truth. The publication, distribution, and dissemination of Mao Xuan in frontier ethnic regions, using the Party's theory as an ideological and cultural carrier, has continuously nourished the hearts of the masses in frontier ethnic regions and sustained the convergence and enhancement of the cohesion of the Chinese nation, injecting a powerful spiritual force for the people of all ethnic groups to jointly carry out the socialist revolution and advance socialist construction. The history of the publication and dissemination of Mao Xuan in ethnic regions demonstrates that the Party's theory is both a concrete cultural achievement and an ideological banner guiding practice. The dissemination and application of theory possess multiple layers of significance in epistemology and methodology for the prosperity and development of Chinese culture and the construction of a shared spiritual home for the Chinese nation. We should inherit and carry forward the beneficial practices from the process of publishing, distributing, and disseminating Mao Xuan, innovatively explore paths and methods to enhance the cohesion of the Chinese nation, better forge the consciousness of the community of the Chinese nation, and advance the construction of the community of the Chinese nation.
About the Authors: Di Hongxu, Associate Professor, School of Marxism, Minzu University of China. Wang Xinyi, Master's Student, School of Marxism, Minzu University of China.
Source: Dang de Wenxian (Literature of the Communist Party of China), Issue 6, 2025. Editor: Hui Hui